Cellular mechanisms of peroxynitrite-induced neuronal death.

Peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is a strong biological oxidant formed by the diffusion-limited reaction of nitric oxide (NO-) and superoxide anion (O2-). It has long been theorized that peroxynitrite generation could be the cause in a number of pathological conditions ranging from atherosclerosis to inflammatory, autoimmune, heart and neurodegenerative diseases. Its relatively long biological half-life and high reactivity allows peroxynitrite to oxidize a number of different targets in the cell. In physiologically relevant conditions peroxynitrite can directly react with thiols, or the radical products of peroxynitrite decomposition may indirectly oxidize other cellular components such as lipids, proteins and DNA. Downstream, oxidative modifications caused by peroxynitrite trigger cell death by a variety of mechanisms depending on the concentration of the oxidant. Peroxynitrite stimulates necrosis, apoptosis, autophagy, parthanatos and necroptosis. Here we review the mechanisms activated by peroxynitrite to cause neuronal death.

Chronic inhibitory effect of riluzole on trophic factor production.

Riluzole is the only FDA approved drug for the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the drug affords moderate protection to ALS patients, extending life for a few months by a mechanism that remains controversial. In the presence of riluzole, astrocytes increase the production of factors protective to motor neurons. The stimulation of trophic factor production by motor neuron associated cells may contribute to riluzole's protective effect in ALS. Here, we investigated the effects of media conditioned by astrocytes and Schwann cells acutely or chronically incubated with riluzole on trophic factor-deprived motor neuron survival. While acute riluzole incubation induced CT-1 secretion by astrocytes and Schwann cells, chronic treatment stimulated a significant decrease in trophic factor production compared to untreated cultures. Accordingly, conditioned media from astrocytes and Schwann cells acutely treated with riluzole protected motor neurons from trophic factor deprivation-induced cell death. Motor neuron protection was prevented by incubation with CT-1 neutralizing antibodies. In contrast, conditioned media from astrocytes and Schwann cells chronically treated with riluzole was not protective. Acute and chronic treatment of mice with riluzole showed opposite effects on trophic factor production in spinal cord, sciatic nerve and brain. There was an increase in the production of CT-1 and GDNF in the spinal cord and CT-1 in the sciatic nerve during the first days of treatment with riluzole, but the levels dropped significantly after chronic treatment with the drug. Similar results were observed in brain for CT-1 and BDNF while there was no change in GDNF levels after riluzole treatment. Our results reveal that riluzole regulates long-lasting processes involving protein synthesis, which may be relevant for riluzole therapeutic effects. Changing the regimen of riluzole administration to favor the acute effect of the drug on trophic factor production by discontinuous long-term treatment may improve the outcome of ALS patient therapy.