Low-cost, local production of a safe and effective disinfectant for resource-constrained communities.

Improved hygiene depends on the accessibility and availability of effective disinfectant solutions. These disinfectant solutions are unavailable to many communities worldwide due to resource limitations, among other constraints. Safe and effective chlorine-based disinfectants can be produced via simple electrolysis of salt water, providing a low-cost and reliable option for on-site, local production of disinfectant solutions to improve sanitation and hygiene. This study reports on a system (herein called "Electro-Clean") that can produce concentrated solutions of hypochlorous acid (HOCl) using readily available, low-cost materials. With just table salt, water, graphite welding rods, and a DC power supply, the Electro-Clean system can safely produce HOCl solutions (~1.5 liters) of up to 0.1% free chlorine (i.e.,1000 ppm) in less than two hours at low potential (5 V DC) and modest current (~5 A). Rigorous testing of free chlorine production and durability of the Electro-Clean system components, described here, has been verified to work in multiple locations around the world, including microbiological tests conducted in India and Mexico to confirm the biocidal efficacy of the Electro-Clean solution as a surface disinfectant. Cost estimates are provided for making HOCl locally with this method in the USA, India, and Mexico. Findings indicate that Electro-Clean is an affordable alternative to off-the-shelf commercial chlorinator systems in terms of first costs (or capital costs), and cost-competitive relative to the unit cost of the disinfectant produced. By minimizing dependence on supply chains and allowing for local production, the Electro-Clean system has the potential to improve public health by addressing the need for disinfectant solutions in resource-constrained communities.

A critical review on sludge management from onsite sanitation systems: A knowledge to be revised in the current situation.

Access to safe excreta disposal is a basic human right and an essential element of human development. Developing countries (like India) have constructed millions of toilets with on-site sanitation technologies (OSTs). However, these OSTs lack the required management system for collection, transportation and disposal of Faecal Sludge (FS, sludge getting accumulated in OST), leading to considerable water and soil pollution. The major challenge in FS Management is the collation of scattered data and concentrated experiences (i.e., existing knowledge remains with the practitioners in the field without a written record). Therefore, a critical review of existing knowledge on OST, FS collection, transportation, and its utilisation is essential. This study highlighted shortcomings associated with existing OST, FS collection, transportation, and treatment systems. Furthermore, this study provided a framework for appropriate selection of OST based on available sanitation chains, and a critical analysis of FS characteristics (i.e., total solids, pH, electrical conductivity, biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, and pathogens of FS ranged from 830 to 72000 mg/L, 6.8 to 7.8, 1.9 to 3.5 mS/cm, 500-5000 mg/L, 100 to 49,000 mg/L, and 106 to 107 E-coli and 103 to 104 parasitic worms per litre of FS, respectively) to design treatment systems for FS utilisation as a resource in agricultural, aqua-culture, and construction application.

Assessing inter and intra-variation in the characteristics of faecal sludge from Vadgaon Maval, Maharashtra: For better faecal sludge management in India.

Faecal Sludge (FS) produced in developing countries has become a significant source of water pollution. The optimal treatment of FS can lead to a sustainable economy. In India, the second phase of the open defecation free (ODF) initiative (energy recovery by providing city- or town-level centralised FS treatment plants) has begun from 2019 to sustain millions of toilets. However, to achieve this goal, India must address significant knowledge gaps such as the type of available on-site sanitation treatments (OSTs), optimal time of emptying the OSTs, and variations in the FS characteristics with age. Thus, the present study analysed FS samples collected from Vadgaon Maval, Maharashtra, India, to understand the inter- and intra-variation in FS characteristics. The pH, electrical conductivity, total solids (TS), specific gravity (SG), organic matter (OM), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and pathogen content of FS samples were observed to be in the range of 7-7.65, 1.19-4.01 mS/cm, 1-123 g/L, 0.88-1.26, 18.4%-100%, 960-6080 mg/L, and 105-109 number/L of FS, respectively. The inter-variation of FS characteristics exhibited that the pH, EC, TS, and SG increased, whereas OM, settling, and drying capacity decreased with an increase in age. Fresh FS (excreta degraded for ≤3 years) was yellowish-brown in colour and exhibited low TS, low SG, and high OM. On the other hand, older FS (excreta degraded for >3 years) was blackish-brown in colour and exhibited high TS, SG, and pathogen content. This observation indicates that FS vacuum pumping may be difficult in the sludge zone after 3 years of excreta degradation, which may encourage the manual scavenging practice. Additionally, the analysis of FS treatment plant (FSTP) process control parameters (settled sludge volume, sludge volume index, and sludge drying capacity) indicated that the treatment time required for older FS is long, which increases the FSTP cost. Furthermore, FS intra-variation in OST exhibited that effluent FS could be directly sent for effluent treatment without any solid-liquid separation process. Thus, the present study can help practitioners in establishing or modifying FS treatment systems for addressing conditions based on the variation in FS characteristics at the town level in India.

Assessment of the future mesothelioma disease burden from past exposure to asbestos in ship recycling yards in India.

The recycling of end-of-life vessels is a complex activity that generates an enormous amount of hazardous waste, including asbestos-containing materials (ACM). Efforts by the Government of India to comply with national and international regulations and improved standard operating procedures are expected to lower the exposure risk of the workforce to hazardous substances, including asbestos. The current workers are likely to face lesser risks than did those exposed in the past. The present study assesses the health risks from past exposure of asbestos for those workers engaged in handling and removing ACM in ship recycling yards before environmentally sound recycling of obsolete ships was introduced in the early 2000s. Estimates were made of the number of workers exposed, and the intensity of exposure and these data were used to estimate the likely number of mesothelioma deaths in the future. It was estimated that nearly 15% of the total workforce engaged in ship recycling will suffer from mesothelioma which translates to about 4,513 mesothelioma deaths among the total of 31,000 workers estimated to be ever employed in the yards from 1994 till 2002. Recommendations are made for a practical approach to the safe handling of ACMs in Indian ship recycling yards.

Role of laboratory services in primary health center (PHC) outpatient department performance: an Indian case study.

BACKGROUND: In resource-constrained settings, primary health centers (PHCs) are critical for universal health coverage. Laboratory service is one of its important components. While PHC and its performance are focused, its laboratory service has been neglected in developing countries like India. AIM: To determine the role of different level of PHC laboratory services on the overall PHC performance. METHODS: Cross-sectional study based on 42 PHCs of Osmanabad District, Maharashtra, India was performed. The study used levels of laboratory services in PHC as independent parameter and PHC outpatient department (OPD) visits per day (≤ 80 versus > 80) as dependent parameter. The control parameters used in the study were number of medical doctors, availability of laboratory technicians (LTs) and population coverage by PHC. Field visit was done to collect data on levels of laboratory services, but secondary source was used for other parameters. The logistic regression analysis was performed in study. FINDINGS: The study found variation in PHC population coverage (10 788-74 702) and OPD visits per day (40-182) across PHC. Strong positive association was observed between levels of laboratory services and number of OPD visits per day in PHC. PHC offering both malaria and tuberculosis in-house testing had higher odds (4.81) of getting more OPDs (≥ 80 OPD visits per day) as compared to PHC not offering in-house testing facility for malaria and tuberculosis. This association was stronger in PHCs with lower population coverage (0-75 quartile) as compared to PHCs with higher population coverage (75-100 quartile). CONCLUSION: Focus on laboratory services is needed to enhance the existing PHCs performance. Skill-up gradation of existing LT could help in improving the contribution of the existing laboratories in PHC functioning.

Critical analysis of India's National Mission on Medicinal Plants (NMMP) in providing access to quality botanical drugs to improve public health.

Drugs play an important role in improving health of the population. Medicinal plants help in addressing the health issues of a large section of the population - especially the low and middle-income people. However, there are some concerns about the supply, efficacy and safety in using them. This study reviews India's major initiative toward medicinal plants namely, the National Mission on Medicinal Plants to meet medicinal plants challenges. The study analyzed the mission's probable shortcomings due to its design and operational details. This study used "content analysis" approach for analysis of mission's publicly available documents, viz. "Operational guidelines" and its two amendments. The study identified prevalent 28 shortcomings in the original document related to clarity of the document; accountability, transparency and stakeholders' representation. These challenges were partially addressed in two amendments, which indicate persistence of shortcomings in design and operational details. The mission can help in improving and strengthening the Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddha and Homeopathy program by addressing those shortcomings.