Hepatitis A in Latin America: The current scenario.

This review aims to gather and disseminate updated information regarding hepatitis A virus (HAV) in Latin America (LA) in the last 11 years, including seroprevalence, post-vaccination studies, virus detection in aqueous matrices and food samples, and outbreak reports. Only 24 seroprevalence studies were published between 2012 and 2023 with 55%-100% reported prevalences of anti-HAV IgG. Among the 25 LA countries, only eight of them have introduced HAV vaccines into their immunisation programs. Outbreaks of hepatitis A occurred between 2017-2019, mainly affecting men who have sex with men in Argentina, Brazil and Chile, probably as a consequence of the abrupt decline of young adults' immunity. This could be due to that young adult have never been infected in childhood (due to socio-health improvements) and are above the cut-off ages to be included when the vaccination programs were introduced. Although scarce, studies focused on environmental and food HAV surveillance have shown viral presence in these samples. Surface waters presented HAV detections between 1.2% and 86.7%, and untreated wastewaters between 2.8% and 70.9%. Genotypes found in all cases were IA and IC. The only wastewater-based epidemiology study showed to be a useful tool as a complement of traditional epidemiological surveillance. Only four LA countries have looked for HAV in food samples, with genome detection rates between 9% and 33%. Latin American HAV circulation scenario is changing. In countries where socioeconomic and sanitary conditions have not improved, the virus persists with high endemicity and the access to the vaccine should be re-evaluated by local governments. In countries where access to clean water, better sanitary conditions and HAV immunisation programs have been implemented, the number of cases among young adults seems to be increasing, alerting health authorities.

Hepatitis E virus in children and adolescents living in an urban environment in central Argentina: An explorative study.

In Argentina, circulation of hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype 3 has been described, producing sporadic cases of acute and chronic hepatitis. Limited information is available regarding HEV infection in children, so we aimed to investigate this virus in a pediatric population from the country. Serum samples from Argentine children (0-18 years old) (n = 213) were studied for IgG anti-HEV, IgM anti-HEV and RNA-HEV: 202 samples belonged to individuals attending health-care centers for routine check-ups, and 11 samples from patients with acute hepatitis of unknown etiology. Seropositivity for IgG anti-HEV was 1.49 % (3/202). One sample from an 18-years-old female patient with acute hepatitis tested positive for IgM anti-HEV detection, negative for IgG anti-HEV and RNA-HEV, but also positive for IgM anti-EBV. The HEV prevalence was low and showed circulation among children in central Argentina.

Diversity and molecular characterization of insect-specific flaviviruses in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) collected in central and northern Argentina.

The genus Flavivirus comprises approximately 80 different viruses. Phylogenetic relationships among its members indicate a clear ecological separation between those viruses transmitted by mosquitoes, ticks, with no known vector, and insect-specific Flaviviruses. The diversity and phylogenetic relationships among insect-specific flaviviruses circulating in the central and northern regions of Argentina were studied by performing molecular detection and characterization of the NS5 protein gene in mosquitoes collected in Córdoba, Chaco and Tucumán provinces. Overall, 68 out of 1776 pools were positive. CxFV, KRV and CFAV circulate in the 3 studied provinces. Several mosquito species (Aedes aegypti, Culex bidens, Cx. dolosus, Cx. interfor, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. saltanensis, Haemagogus spegazzini) were found infected. A wide circulation of CxFV was observed in the central-northern region of Argentina. CxFV strains detected in our study clustered with strains circulating in Santa Fe and Buenos Aires provinces (Argentina), and other countries such as Indonesia, Mexico, Uganda and Taiwan. The presence of these viruses in mosquitoes could play an important role from the public health perspective, because it has been shown that previous CxFV infection can increase or block the infection of the mosquito by other pathogenic flaviviruses.

Molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Argentina: Evaluation of alternative diagnostic tools for the decentralization of the diagnosis

Abstract The rocketing number of COVID-19 cases highlighted the critical role that diagnostic tests play in medical and public health decision-making to contain and mitigate the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. This study reports the evaluation and implementation of different tests for the molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in the central region of Argentina. We evaluated 3 real time RT-PCR kits (GeneFinder COVID-19 Plus RealAmp Kit, DisCoVery SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR Detection Kit and WGene SARS-CoV-2 RT Detection), 2 nucleic acid extraction methods [MagaBio plus Virus DNA/RNA Purification Kit II (BioFlux), 35-min vs. 9-min, a pre-analytical reagent (FlashPrep®) and 2 isothermal amplification tests (Neokit Plus and ELA CHEMSTRIP®). The order according to the best performance of the 3 real-time RT-PCR kits evaluated was: DisCoVery > GeneFinderTM> WGene. The 2 RNA extraction methods showed similar good results: MagaBio plus Virus RNA Purification Kit II (BioFlux) 9-min was selected due to its faster performance. FlashPrep® reagent showed excellent results to perform direct RNA detection. Isothermal amplification assays showed acceptable sensitivity and specificity values (>80%), except in samples with Ct> 30. Our data show optimal real time RT-PCR kits and alternative molecular methods for SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic. These alternative assays proved to be aceptable.

Resumen La explosión de casos de COVID-19 resaltó el papel fundamental que desempeñan las pruebas de diagnóstico en la toma de decisiones médicas y de salud pública para contener y mitigar la pandemia de SARS-CoV-2. Este estudio reporta la evaluación y la implementación de diferentes test para la detección molecular de SARS-CoV-2 en la región central de Argentina. Evaluamos tres kits de RT-PCR en tiempo real (GeneFinder COVID-19 Plus RealAmp Kit, DisCoVery SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR Detection Kit y WGene SARS-CoV-2 RT Detection), dos métodos de extracción de ácidos nucleicos (MagaBio plus Virus DNA/RNA Purification Kit II [BioFlux, 35-min vs. 9-min), un reactivo pre-analítico (FlashPrep®) y dos test de amplificación isotérmica (Neokit Plus and ELA CHEMSTRIP®). El orden de rendimiento de los tres kits de RT-PCR en tiempo real evaluados fue el siguiente: DisCoVery GeneFinder™ WGene. Los dos métodos de extracción de RNA mostraron buenos y similares resultados; se seleccionó MagaBio plus Virus RNA Purification Kit II (BioFlux) 9-min debido a su rápido tiempo de procesamiento. El reactivo FlashPrep® mostró excelentes resultados para realizar detección directa de RNA. Los ensayos de amplificación isotérmica mostraron valores de sensibilidad y de especificidad aceptables (80%), excepto en muestras con Ct 30. Nuestros resultados muestran kits de RT-PCR en tiempo real óptimos, como así también métodos moleculares alternativos para el diagnóstico de SARS-CoV-2 que resultan aceptables para su uso en contextos adversos, de descentralización y en diferentes escenarios epidemiológicos, para la detección rápida y precisa del SARS-CoV-2.

High circulation of hepatitis E virus (HEV) in pigs from the central region of Argentina without evidence of virus occurrence in pork meat and derived products.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging cause of viral hepatitis and pigs are considered a reservoir for the virus. HEV genotype 3 (HEV-3) has been reported in pigs, environmental matrices, and sporadic human cases in Argentina. We aimed to investigate HEV circulation in pigs from central Argentina and to assess the virus presence in pork meat and food products. Four types of samples obtained or derived from pigs collected in Córdoba province (Argentina) between 2019 and 2022, were tested: 276 serum samples were analyzed for anti-HEV antibody detection; stool (n = 20), pork meat (n = 71), and salami (n = 76) samples were studied for RNA-HEV detection, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analyses. The positivity rate for anti-HEV antibodies was 80.1% (221/276). Eleven fecal samples (11/20) tested positive for RNA-HEV, from animals under 120 days of age. Three samples could be sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses revealed that they belonged to HEV-3 clade abchijklm, clustering close to strains previously detected in wastewater from Córdoba. None of the muscle meat or salami samples tested positive. A high HEV circulation in pigs was found, showing that these animals may play a significant role in the viral maintenance in the region, becoming a potential risk to the exposed population. Despite not detecting RNA-HEV in pork meat and salami in our study, we cannot rule out the possibility of foodborne transmission in Córdoba province.

Molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Argentina: Evaluation of alternative diagnostic tools for the decentralization of the diagnosis.

The rocketing number of COVID-19 cases highlighted the critical role that diagnostic tests play in medical and public health decision-making to contain and mitigate the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. This study reports the evaluation and implementation of different tests for the molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in the central region of Argentina. We evaluated 3 real time RT-PCR kits (GeneFinder COVID-19 Plus RealAmp Kit, DisCoVery SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR Detection Kit and WGene SARS-CoV-2 RT Detection), 2 nucleic acid extraction methods [MagaBio plus Virus DNA/RNA Purification Kit II (BioFlux), 35-min vs. 9-min], a pre-analytical reagent (FlashPrep®) and 2 isothermal amplification tests (Neokit Plus and ELA CHEMSTRIP®). The order according to the best performance of the 3 real-time RT-PCR kits evaluated was: DisCoVery>GeneFinderTM>WGene. The 2 RNA extraction methods showed similar good results: MagaBio plus Virus RNA Purification Kit II (BioFlux) 9-min was selected due to its faster performance. FlashPrep® reagent showed excellent results to perform direct RNA detection. Isothermal amplification assays showed acceptable sensitivity and specificity values (>80%), except in samples with Ct>30. Our data show optimal real time RT-PCR kits and alternative molecular methods for SARS-CoV-2 diagnostic. These alternative assays proved to be acceptable for their use in adverse contexts, decentralization, and different epidemiological scenarios, for rapid and accurate SARS-CoV-2 detection.

Phylogenetic analysis and comparative genomics of SARS-CoV-2 from survivor and non-survivor COVID-19 patients in Cordoba, Argentina.

BACKGROUND: The SARS-CoV-2 virus is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. To better understand the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 early in the pandemic in the Province of Cordoba, Argentina, we performed a comparative genomic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 strains detected in survivors and non-survivors of COVID-19. We also carried out an epidemiological study to find a possible association between the symptoms and comorbidities of these patients with their clinical outcomes. RESULTS: A representative sampling was performed in different cities in the Province of Cordoba. Ten and nine complete SARS-CoV-2 genomes were obtained by next-generation sequencing of nasopharyngeal specimens from non-survivors and survivors, respectively. Phylogenetic and phylodynamic analyses revealed multiple introductions of the most common lineages in South America, including B.1, B.1.1.1, B.1.499, and N.3. Fifty-six mutations were identified, with 14% of those in common between the non-survivor and survivor groups. Specific SARS-CoV-2 mutations for survivors constituted 25% whereas for non-survivors they were 41% of the repertoire, indicating partial selectivity. The non-survivors' variants showed higher diversity in 9 genes, with a majority in Nsp3, while the survivors' variants were detected in 5 genes, with a higher incidence in the Spike protein. At least one comorbidity was present in 60% of non-survivor patients and 33% of survivors. Age 75-85 years (p = 0.018) and hospitalization (p = 0.019) were associated with non-survivor patients. Related to the most common symptoms, the prevalence of fever was similar in both groups, while dyspnea was more frequent among non-survivors and cough among survivors. CONCLUSIONS: This study describes the association of clinical characteristics with the clinical outcomes of survivors and non-survivors of COVID-19 patients, and the specific mutations found in the genome sequences of SARS-CoV-2 in each patient group. Future research on the functional characterization of novel mutations should be performed to understand the role of these variations in SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and COVID-19 disease outcomes. These results add new genomic data to better understand the evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 variants that spread in Argentina during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Tracking SARS-CoV-2 Variants Using a Rapid Typification Strategy: A Key Tool for Early Detection and Spread Investigation of Omicron in Argentina.

SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOC) and interest (VOI) present mutations in reference to the original virus, being more transmissible. We implemented a rapid strategy for the screening of SARS-CoV-2 VOC/VOIs using real time RT-PCR and performed monitoring and surveillance of the variants in our region. Consecutive real-time RT-PCRs for detection of the relevant mutations/deletions present in the Spike protein in VOC/VOIs (TaqMan™ SARS-CoV-2 Mutation Panel, Applied Biosystems) were implemented. A total of 6,640 SARS-CoV-2 RNA samples (Cts < 30) from infected individuals in Central Argentina during 2021 were analyzed using different algorithms that were gradually adapted to the changing scenarios of local variant circulation. The strategy developed allowed the early detection and the identification of VOC/VOIs that circulated through the year, with a 100% of concordance with the WGS. The analyses of the samples showed introductions of VOCs Alpha and Gamma in February and March 2021, respectively. Gamma showed an exponential increase, with a peak of detection in July (72%), being responsible of the second wave of COVID19 in Argentina. Since VOC Delta entered into the region, it increased gradually, together with VOI Lambda, replacing VOC Gamma, until being the main variant (84.9%) on November. By December, these variants were replaced by the emergent VOC Omicron in a term of 2 weeks, producing the third wave. We report a useful tool for VOC/VOI detection, capable to quickly and cost-effectively monitor currently recognized variants in resource-limited settings, which allowed to track the recent expansion of Omicron in our region, and contributed to the implementation of public health measures to control the disease spread.

Hepatitis E virus in blood donors from Argentina: A possible source of viral infection?

BACKGROUND: The hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes acute hepatitis, which can progress to chronicity in immunosuppressed patients. It is transmitted mainly by the fecal-oral or zoonotic routes, but there is current evidence that it can be transmitted by blood transfusions. The objective of the study was to investigate HEV infections in blood donors in Argentina, within the framework of a hemovigilance program. METHODS: A total of 547 samples from Argentinean blood donors, collected in 2016, 2019 and 2020 was studied for IgG and IgM anti-HEV by ELISA (Diapro) and RNA HEV by RT-real time PCR and RT-Nested-PCR. RESULTS: The prevalence of IgG anti-HEV was 3.47% (19/547). No significant differences were registered according to the year studied, sex or age. The presence of RNA HEV was observed in 0.18% (1/547) of the donors studied without serological evidence of infection. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first molecular detection in blood donors from Argentina, showing a molecular prevalence within the range described for RNA-HEV in blood donors from other non-endemic countries, in which immunocompetent RNA-HEV positive donors without serological evidence of infection were identified. The presence of viraemic donors could imply transfusion transmission, which deserves further attention and study.

Acute and chronic HBV infection in central Argentina: High frequency of sub-genotype F1b, low detection of clinically relevant mutations and first evidence of HDV.

Introduction: Genomic analysis of hepatitis B virus (HBV) identifies phylogenetic variants, which may lead to distinct biological and clinical behaviors. The satellite hepatitis D virus (HDV) may also influence clinical outcomes in patients with hepatitis B. The aim of this study was to investigate HBV genetic variants, including clinically relevant mutations, and HDV infection in acute and chronic hepatitis B patients in central Argentina. Methods: A total of 217 adult HBV infected patients [acute (AHB): n = 79; chronic (CHB): n = 138] were studied; 67 were HBV/human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfected. Clinical and demographic data were obtained from medical records. Serological markers were determined. Molecular detection of HBV and HDV was carried out by RT-Nested PCR, followed by sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Results: Overall, genotype (gt) F [sub-genotype (sgt) F1b] was the most frequently found. In AHB patients, the gts/sgts found were: F1b (74.7%) > A2 (13.9%) > F4 (7.6%) > C (2.5%) > A1 (1.3%). Among CHB patients: F1b (39.1%) > A2 (23.9%) > F4 (18.2%) > D (9.4%) > C and F6 (3.6% each) > A1, A3 and B2 (0.7% each). The distribution of sgt A2 and gt D was significantly different between HBV mono and HBV/HIV coinfected patients [A2: 15.9% vs. 35.7% (p < 0.05), respectively and D: 14.6% vs. 1.8% (p < 0.05), respectively]. Mutation frequency in basal core promoter/pre-Core (BCP/pC) region was 35.5% (77/217) [AHB: 20.3% (16/79), CHB: 44.2% (61/138)]. In the open reading frame (ORF) S, mutations associated with vaccine escape and diagnostic failure were detected in 7.8% of the sequences (17/217) [AHB: 3.8% (3/79), CHB: 10.1% (14/138)]. ORF-P amino acid substitutions associated with antiviral resistance were detected in 3.2% of the samples (7/217) [AHB: 1.3% (1/79), CHB 4.3%, (6/138)]. The anti-HDV seropositivity was 5.2% (4/77); one sample could be sequenced, belonging to gt HDV-1 associated with sgt HBV-D3. Discussion: We detected an increase in the circulation of genotype F in Central Argentina, particularly among AHB patients, suggesting transmission advantages over the other genotypes. A low rate of mutations was detected, especially those with antiviral resistance implications, which is an encouraging result. The evidence of HDV circulation in our region, reported for the first time, alerts the health system for its search and diagnosis.

Phylogeography and evolutionary history of hepatitis E virus genotype 3 in Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Few studies about the evolutionary history of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) have been conducted. The aim of our work was to investigate and make inferences about the origin and routes of dispersion of HEV-3 in Argentina. METHODS: Phylogenetic, coalescent and phylogeographic analyses were performed using a 322-bp ORF2 genomic fragment of all HEV-3 sequences with known date and place of isolation published at GenBank until May 2018 (n=926), including 16 Argentinian sequences (isolated from pigs, water and humans). RESULTS: Phylogenetic analysis revealed two clades within HEV-3: abchij and efg. All Argentinian samples were grouped intermingled within clade 3abchij. The coalescent analysis showed that the most recent common ancestor for the clade 3abchij would have existed around the year 1967 (95% highest posterior density (HPD): 1963-1970). The estimated substitution rate was 1.01×10-2 (95%HPD: 9.3×10-3-1.09×10-2) substitutions/site/y, comparable with the rate previously described. The phylogeographic approach revealed a correspondence between phylogeny and place of origin for Argentinian samples, suggesting many HEV introductions in the country, probably from Europe and Japan. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first evolutionary inference of HEV-3 that includes Argentinian strains, showing the circulation of many HEV-3 subtypes, obtained from different sources and places, with recent diversification processes. ACCESSION NUMBERS: [KX812460], [KX812461], [KX812462], [KX812465], [KX812466], [KX812467], [KX812468], [KX812469].

Viral hepatitis update: Progress and perspectives.

Viral hepatitis, secondary to infection with hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E viruses, are a major public health problem and an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Despite the huge medical advances achieved in recent years, there are still points of conflict concerning the pathogenesis, immune response, development of new and more effective vaccines, therapies, and treatment. This review focuses on the most important research topics that deal with issues that are currently being solved, those that remain to be solved, and future research directions. For hepatitis A virus we will address epidemiology, molecular surveillance, new susceptible populations as well as environmental and food detections. In the case of hepatitis B virus, we will discuss host factors related to disease, diagnosis, therapy, and vaccine improvement. On hepatitis C virus, we will focus on pathogenesis, immune response, direct action antivirals treatment in the context of solid organ transplantation, issues related to hepatocellular carcinoma development, direct action antivirals resistance due to selection of resistance-associated variants, and vaccination. Regarding hepatitis D virus, we describe diagnostic methodology, pathogenesis, and therapy. Finally, for hepatitis E virus, we will address epidemiology (including new emerging species), diagnosis, clinical aspects, treatment, the development of a vaccine, and environmental surveillance.

Hepatitis E virus infection in pregnant women, Argentina.

BACKGROUND: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection is an important cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. In pregnant women, HEV can cause more severe symptoms, with high rates of fatal hepatic failure in endemic countries. However, HEV prevalence and circulation among pregnant women from South America is almost unknown. We aimed to investigate HEV infection in pregnant women for the first time in Argentina. METHODS: IgG and IgM anti-HEV antibodies and RNA-HEV were investigated (by ELISA assays and RT-Nested-PCR, respectively) in 202 serum samples from pregnant women collected in the central region of Argentina between 2015 and 2017. A control group of 155 non-pregnant women was included (year 2018). RESULTS: The IgG anti-HEV positivity rate was 8.4% (17/202), higher than the 2.6% (4/155) obtained for the non-pregnant women control group, and showing association between pregnancy and HEV infection (p = 0.023, OR = 3.5, CI95% = 1.1-10.5). Women younger than 25 years old presented higher levels of antibodies, and there were no differences in the prevalences between trimesters of pregnancy. Two samples were reactive for IgM anti-HEV, showing recent infections, although no symptoms were registered in these patients. All samples were negative for RNA-HEV amplification. CONCLUSIONS: HEV produces infections in pregnant women from Argentina, alerting health teams to consider it as a possible cause of liver disease.

Unexpected high seroprevalence of hepatitis E virus in patients with alcohol-related cirrhosis.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection in patients with cirrhosis. The aim of the present study was to describe the frequency of HEV infection and associated risk factors in patients with cirrhosis from Argentina. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated HEV seroprevalence (IgG anti-HEV) and acute infections (IgM and RNA) in patients with cirrhosis (n = 140) vs. healthy controls (n = 300). Additionally, we compared the same outcomes in individuals with alcohol-related cirrhosis (n = 43) vs. patients with alcohol use disorder (without cirrhosis, n = 72). RESULTS: The overall HEV seroprevalence in the cohort of subjects with cirrhosis was 25% (35/140), compared to 4% in the healthy control group [12/300; OR = 8; (95% CI = 4-15.99); p<0.05]. HEV seropositivity was significantly higher in alcohol-related cirrhosis compared to other causes of cirrhosis [39.5% vs. 12.4%; OR = 4.71; (95% CI = 1.9-11.6); p<0.05] and to healthy controls [OR = 15.7; (95% CI = 6.8-36.4); p = 0.0001]. The HEV seroprevalence in alcoholic-related cirrhosis vs. with alcohol use disorder was 39.5% vs. 12.5% [OR = 4.58; (95% CI = 1.81-11.58); p<0.001]. CONCLUSION: We found a high seroprevalence of HEV in patients with cirrhosis and in individuals with alcohol use disorder. The simultaneous presence of both factors (cirrhosis + alcohol) showed more association to HEV infection. Larger studies with prospective follow up are needed to further clarify this interaction.

New pieces in the transmission cycle of the hepatitis E virus in South America: first viral detection in wild boars from Argentina.

BACKGROUND: The hepatitis E virus (HEV) causes hepatitis worldwide. In Europe, wild boars are known to be viral reservoirs and sources of infection. In South America, there is a lack of information about HEV in these animals. METHODS: A total of 102 wild boar serum samples from Argentina (2014-2017) were studied for serological and molecular HEV detection. RESULTS: We obtained a seroprevalence of 19.6%, similar to that recently described in Uruguay (the only antecedent in South America). HEV ribonucleic acid (RNA) was amplified in two anti-HEV-positive samples. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of HEV circulation in wild boars from Argentina, adding evidence to the findings obtained in Uruguay indicating that wild boars could be viral reservoirs in South America.

Environmental hepatitis E virus detection supported by serological evidence in the northwest of Argentina.

Background: Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emergent cause of acute hepatitis worldwide. Water contamination is a possible source of viral infection. In South America, particularly in Argentina, little is known about environmental HEV circulation, including recreational water. The aim of this work was to provide evidence of current environmental and human circulation of HEV in northern Argentina. Methods: Molecular detection of HEV in water samples from the Arias-Arenales River in the city of Salta by nested polymerase chain reaction (ORF2 region) and anti-HEV immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM detection in the general population by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was carried out. Results: HEV RNA was detected in 1.6% (3/189) of the environmental samples. All sequences belonged to HEV genotype 3 and were very similar to those previously detected in the country. The prevalence of IgG anti-HEV was 9% (13/143) and three samples were positive for specific IgM. Conclusions: Circulation of HEV in the northwest of Argentina was demonstrated for the first time, showing viral presence in environmental samples and infections in people who attended health care centres for routine control. These findings show that recreational waters are a possible source of virus and highlight the need to carry out HEV detection when a case of hepatitis occurs.

Hepatitis E virus in South America: The current scenario.

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is one of the most frequent causes of acute viral hepatitis of enteric transmission worldwide. In South America the overall epidemiology has been little studied, and the burden of the disease remains largely unknown. A research of all scientific articles about HEV circulation in South America until November 2017 was carried out. Human seroprevalences of HEV varied according to the studied population: blood donors presented prevalence rates ranging from 1.8% to 9.8%, while reports from HIV-infected individuals, transplant recipients and patients on hemodialysis showed higher prevalence rates. Only 2 cases of chronic hepatitis in solid-organ transplant patients from Argentina and Brazil have been described. Detection of HEV in the swine population is widely prevalent in the region. Anti-HEV antibodies have also been recently documented in wild boars from Uruguay. Although scarce, studies focused on environmental and food HEV detection have shown viral presence in these kind of samples, highlighting possible transmission sources of HEV in the continent. HEV genotype 3 was the most frequently detected in the region, with HEV genotype 1 detected only in Venezuela and Uruguay. HEV is widely distributed throughout South America, producing sporadic cases of acute hepatitis, but as a possible agent of chronic hepatitis. Finding the virus in humans, animals, environmental samples and food, show that it can be transmitted through many sources, alerting local governments and health systems to improve diagnosis and for the implementation of preventive measures.

Environmental Surveillance of Enteroviruses in Central Argentina: First Detection and Evolutionary Analyses of E14.

Environmental surveillance is an effective approach to investigate the circulation of human enteroviruses in the population. Enteroviruses E14, CVA9, E-6, E16, E20, E25, E13, and CVA24 were detected in sewage and a watercourse in central Argentina. E14 was the most frequent serotype and was found for the first time in environmental samples in our region. Phylogenetic and coalescence analyses showed at least two recent introduction events.

Molecular characterization of Chlamydia pneumoniae in animals and humans from Argentina: Genetic characterization of Chlamydia pneumoniae.

In this study, genetic diversity of Chlamydia pneumoniae was investigated and the relationships between sequences amplified of different sources, clinical conditions and geographical regions of central Argentina were established. Samples amplified were similar to human C. pneumoniae patterns and show the high clonality of the population.