Nighttime behavior and the length of social relationships in male Asian elephants.

To evaluate elephant welfare, it is important to understand their use of time both during day and night. The length of social relationships can influence how much time they spend in different activities. We assessed daytime and nighttime activity budgets of male Asian elephants at Denver Zoo and examined how length of relationships influenced nighttime behavior. Using scan sampling we investigated activity budget and proximity to a conspecific, and used General Estimating Equations to compare them across day and night and across new and established dyads at night. During daytime, elephants spent significantly more time exhibiting affiliative and agonistic behaviors, and in proximity to a conspecific, and less time resting, compared to night. Overnight, the odds of resting were significantly lower in new social dyads compared to established dyads, and new dyads spent more time exhibiting agonistic behavior and in proximity to a conspecific compared to established dyads. Our study suggests that male elephants at Denver Zoo have developed strong relationships and highlights the importance of systematically observing elephants overnight so that managers make decisions that improve animal welfare.

Social Dynamics of a Newly Integrated Bachelor Group of Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus): Welfare implications.

Male associations are a typical component of elephant society, allowing bulls to practice appropriate social behavior. To improve zoo elephant welfare, it is important to provide bulls with social opportunities. In fall 2018, Denver Zoo added two bull Asian elephants to its existing all-male group of three bulls, offering the opportunity to conduct a systematic behavioral study of the integration of the new bulls into the resident group. We recorded aggressive and affiliative behaviors before, during, and after the introduction of the new males. The proportion of aggressive behavior was significantly higher during the five-month introduction period compared to before their introduction. By the end of the study period, the elephants engaged in significantly more affiliative behavior and less aggressive behavior than during the introduction period, suggesting they had formed a new stable social dynamic. These results suggest group compatibility and positive elephant welfare resulting from housing male elephants together and can be used to inform management plans for bull elephants that prioritize their welfare.

The effects of Zoo Lights on animal welfare: A case study of great Indian hornbills at Denver Zoo.

Popular evening events, such as Zoo Lights, increase the exposure of animals in managed care to stressors such as artificial light and noise, which may alter their behavior and negatively affect animal well-being. The pair of great Indian hornbills (Buceros bicornis) at Denver Zoo provided an opportunity to study the impacts of these stressors because their exhibit was open every evening during Zoo Lights 2017. We expected the hornbills to display increased aggressive behaviors during Zoo Lights due to more exposure to stressors compared to the periods before and after the holiday event. Alternatively, if behavioral changes were associated with hornbills' breeding season which runs from December-March, we expected the hornbills to engage in more affiliative behaviors, and to increase conspecific and nest proximity, during and after Zoo Lights compared to before it due to the onset and progression of the breeding season. The hornbills did not engage in significantly more aggressive behavior during Zoo Lights than before or after it. By contrast, the hornbills engaged in significantly more affiliative behaviors and increased conspecific proximity during and after Zoo Lights compared to before the event. These results are consistent with the timing of the hornbills' breeding season and not with the increased exposure to stressors during Zoo Lights. This case study provides an early step in assessing the impact of Zoo Lights on animals whose exhibits are part of these holiday events. Studies like this will help inform best practices for Zoo Lights events such that they are positive experiences for the zoo, visitors, and animals.

Organic Amendments Alter Soil Hydrology and Belowground Microbiome of Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum).

Manure-derived organic amendments are a cost-effective tool that provide many potential benefits to plant and soil health including fertility, water retention, and disease suppression. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate how dairy manure compost (DMC), dairy manure compost-derived vermicompost (VC), and dehydrated poultry manure pellets (PP) impact the tripartite relationship among plant growth, soil physiochemical properties, and microbial community composition. Of tomato plants with manure-derived fertilizers amendments, only VC led to vigorous growth through the duration of the experiment, whereas DMC had mixed impacts on plant growth and PP was detrimental. Organic amendments increased soil porosity and soil water holding capacity, but delayed plant maturation and decreased plant biomass. Composition of bacterial communities were affected more by organic amendment than fungal communities in all microhabitats. Composition of communities outside roots (bulk soil, rhizosphere, rhizoplane) contrasted those within roots (endosphere). Distinct microbial communities were detected for each treatment, with an abundance of Massilia, Chryseolinea, Scedosporium, and Acinetobacter distinguishing the control, vermicompost, dairy manure compost, and dehydrated poultry manure pellet treatments, respectively. This study suggests that plant growth is affected by the application of organic amendments not only because of the soil microbial communities introduced, but also due to a synergistic effect on the physical soil environment. Furthermore, there is a strong interaction between root growth and the spatial heterogeneity of soil and root-associated microbial communities.

Mantled Howler Monkeys (Alouatta palliata) in a Costa Rican Forest Fragment Do Not Modify Activity Budgets or Spatial Cohesion in Response to Anthropogenic Edges.

Forest fragmentation increases forest edge relative to forest interior, with lower vegetation quality common for primates in edge zones. Because most primates live in human-modified tropical forests within 1 km of their edges, it is critical to understand how primates cope with edge effects. Few studies have investigated how primates inhabiting a fragment alter their behaviour across forest edge and interior zones. Here we investigate how anthropogenic edges affect the activity and spatial cohesion of mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata) at the La Suerte Biological Research Station (LSBRS), a Costa Rican forest fragment. We predicted the monkeys would spend greater proportions of their activity budget feeding and resting and a lower proportion travelling in edge compared to forest interior to compensate for lower resource availability in the edge. We also predicted that spatial cohesion would be lower in the edge to mitigate feeding competition. We collected data on activity and spatial cohesion (nearest neighbour distance; number of individuals within 5 m) in forest edge and interior zones via instantaneous sampling of focal animals. Contrary to predictions, the monkeys spent equal proportions of time feeding, resting and travelling in forest edge and interior. Similarly, there were no biologically meaningful differences in the number of individuals or the distance between nearest neighbours in the edge (1.0 individuals; 1.56 m) versus the interior (0.8 individuals; 1.73 m). Our results indicate that A. palliata at LSBRS do not adjust their activity or spatial cohesion patterns in response to anthropogenic edge effects, suggesting that the monkeys here exhibit less behavioural flexibility than A. palliata at some other sites. To develop effective primate conservation plans, it is therefore crucial to study primate species' responses to fragmentation across their geographic range.