What Influences the Victimization of High-Level Offenders? A Dual Trajectory Analysis of the Victim-Offender Overlap From the Perspective of Routine Activities With Peer Groups.

Although the consistent association between offending and victimization is a long-noted phenomenon, current criminological research is still engaged to gather profound knowledge on the etiology of this victim-offender overlap. Beyond that, the examination of its development over the life course requires further attention to create a better understanding of why offending and victimization are strongly connected. Applying a joint trajectory technique, the present study examines the overlap between distinct trajectories of offending and violent victimization throughout the phase of youth and adolescence using seven consecutive waves from the German longitudinal study "Crime in the Modern City." In particular, the victimization of high-level offenders is investigated taking a routine activity perspective with a focus on activities with peers. The results indicate that there is a sizable overlap between trajectories of violent victimization and constant offending with four out of five high-level offenders being repeatedly victimized. Furthermore, the examination shows that meeting more frequently with friends, going out and drinking alcohol, doing forbidden things for fun, and casually hanging out with friends increases the risk of high-level offending significantly. Moreover, the analysis indicates that meeting frequently with friends enhances the risk of violent victimization for offenders, whereas casually hanging out reduces the risk. However, these impacts can only be observed for the present sample and cannot be generalized with sufficient certainty. In addition, the analysis provides evidence that gender differences in the victim-offender overlap are mediated through diverging activities. Implications and limitations are discussed.

Protecting self-esteem from stigma: a test of different strategies for coping with the stigma of mental illness.

BACKGROUND: To date, there has been little research into effective strategies for preventing the detrimental effects of stigma on the well-being of people with mental illness. AIM: The present research set out to identify adaptive strategies for dealing with the stigma of mental illness. METHODS: On the basis of the responses of 355 people with mental illness (PWMI) a standardized questionnaire assessing 10 identity management strategies was developed. Participants also reported their personal experiences with stigma, depression and self-esteem. RESULTS: Hierarchical regression analyses showed that after controlling for depression and stigmatizing experiences, the strategies of community involvement, humour and positive ingroup stereotyping were related to higher self-esteem. Secrecy, selective disclosure and attempts at overcompensation or disproving stereotypes were related to lower self-esteem. The following strategies were unrelated to self-esteem: comparing the present social position of PWMI with that in the past, normalization of the illness within a medical model, information seeking and selective withdrawal. CONCLUSIONS: PWMI should be encouraged to seek support within their community and to develop a positive image of their ingroup.