Bats and their vital ecosystem services: a global review.

Bats play crucial ecosystem services as seed dispersers, pollinators, controllers of insects, and nutrient recyclers. However, there has not been a thorough global review evaluating these roles in bats across all biogeographical regions of the world. We reviewed the literature published during the last two decades and identified 283 relevant studies: 78 dealt with the control of potential insect pests by bats, 80 related to the suppression of other arthropods, 60 on the dispersal of native or endemic seeds, 11 dealt with the dispersal of seeds of introduced plants, 29 on the pollination of native or endemic plants, 1 study on pollination of introduced plants, and 24 on the use of guano as fertilizer. Our literature search showed that queries combining the terms "seed dispersal," "insectivorous bats," "nectarivorous bats," "use of guano," and "ecosystem services" returned 577 studies, but half were experimental in nature. We found that the evaluation of ecosystem services by bats has been mostly conducted in the Neotropical and Palearctic regions. To detect differences across relevant studies, and to explain trends in the study of ecosystem services provided by bats, we performed generalized linear mixed models (GLMM) fitted with a Poisson distribution to analyze potential differences among sampling methods. We identified 409 bat species that provide ecosystem services, 752 insect species consumed by bats and 549 plant species either dispersed or pollinated by bats. Our review summarizes the importance of conserving bat populations and the ecological services they provide, which is especially important during the current pandemic.

Skull Morphology, Bite Force, and Diet in Insectivorous Bats from Tropical Dry Forests in Colombia.

In Neotropical bats, studies on bite force have focused mainly on differences in trophic ecology, and little is known about whether factors other than body size generate interspecific differences in bite force amongst insectivorous bats and, consequently, in their diets. We tested if bite force is related to skull morphology and also to diet in an assemblage of Neotropical insectivorous bats from tropical dry forests in the inter-Andean central valley in Colombia. It is predicted that the preference of prey types among insectivorous species is based on bite force and cranial characteristics. We also evaluated whether skull morphology varies depending on the species and sex. Cranial measurements and correlations between morphological variation and bite force were examined for 10 insectivorous bat species. We calculated the size-independent mechanical advantage for the mandibular (jaw) lever system. In all species, bite force increased with length of the skull and the jaw more than other cranial measurements. Obligate insectivorous species were morphologically different from the omnivorous Noctilio albiventris, which feeds primarily on insects, but also consumes fish and fruits. Our results show that bite force and skull morphology are closely linked to diets in Neotropical insectivorous bats and, consequently, these traits are key to the interactions within the assemblage and with their prey.

Foraging strategies, craniodental traits, and interaction in the bite force of Neotropical frugivorous bats (Phyllostomidae: Stenodermatinae).

Bats in the family Phyllostomidae exhibit great diversity in skull size and morphology that reflects the degree of resource division and ecological overlap in the group. In particular, the subfamily Stenodermatinae has high morphological diversification associated with cranial and mandibular traits that are associated with the ability to consume the full range of available fruits (soft and hard).We analyzed craniodental traits and their relationship to the bite force in 343 specimens distributed in seven species of stenodermatine bats with two foraging strategies: nomadic and sedentary frugivory. We evaluated 19 traits related to feeding and bite force in live animals by correcting bite force with body size.We used a generalized linear model (GLM) and post hoc tests to determine possible relationships and differences between cranial traits, species, and sex. We also used Blomberg's K to measure the phylogenetic signal and phylogenetic generalized least-squares (PGLS) to ensure the phylogenetic independence of the traits.We found that smaller nomadic species, A. anderseni and A. phaeotis , have a similar bite force to the large species A. planirostris and A. lituratus; furthermore, P. helleri registered a bite force similar to that of the sedentary bat, S. giannae. Our study determined that all the features of the mandible and most of the traits of the skull have a low phylogenetic signal. Through the PGLS, we found that the diet and several cranial features (mandibular toothrow length, dentary length, braincase breadth, mastoid breadth, greatest length of skull, condylo-incisive length, and condylo-canine length) determined bite force performance among Stenodermatiane.Our results reinforce that skull size is a determining factor in the bite force, but also emphasize the importance of its relationships with morphology, ecology, and phylogeny of the species, which gives us a better understanding of the evolutionary adaptions of this highly diverse Neotropical bat group.

Mamíferos del departamento del Tolima: distribución y estado de conservación / Mammals of the Tolima department: distribution and state of conservation

RESUMEN El estudio mastozoológico del departamento del Tolima ha aumentado en los últimos años; sin embargo, esta información no ha sido compilada, ni actualizada, de manera que se identifiquen los errores de distribución y taxonómicos, en aras de identificar prioridades de investigación y de conservación. Con el fin de unificar la información de los mamíferos presentes en el departamento, se recopilaron y se validaron los registros museológicos de la Colección Zoológica de la Universidad del Tolima (CZUT-M), Museo Javeriano de Historia Natural Lorenzo Uribe (MPUJ), bases de datos de colecciones nacionales, internacionales e información bibliográfica. La lista de mamíferos consolidada confirma 126 especies, lo que equivale al 24,32% de las especies de mamíferos de Colombia, entre las cuales, se registra seis endémicas y siete en alguna categoría de amenaza. Esta diversidad, se agrupa en 30 familias, 88 géneros y 12 órdenes, en donde Chiroptera (71 spp.) y Rodentia (18 spp.) son los mejor representados. La zona de vida que evidenció la mayor riqueza de especies fue el Bosque Seco Tropical, con 56; no obstante, estas áreas han presentado un mayor esfuerzo investigativo en relación con otras, como las establecidas por encima de los 2.000m s.n.m. Se resalta la necesidad de investigaciones en el departamento, para complementar los vacíos de información, así como la implementación de planes de manejo y de conservación, tanto de las especies como de las áreas.

ABSTRACT The mastozoologica study of the department of Tolima has increased in recent years, however, this information has not been compiled, nor updated, so as to identify distribution and taxonomic errors in order to identify research and conservation priorities. In order to synthesize the information on mammals from this Department, here a compilation of information from voucher specimens from Colección Zoológica de la Universidad del Tolima (CZUT-M), Museo Javeriano de Historia Natural Lorenzo Uribe (MPUJ), national collections as well as records from international museum databases and the scientific literature were investigated. As product of our analyses, the list contains 126 species of mammals, a number which is equivalent to 24.32% of the mammal species of Colombia; of these species, six are endemic to the country and seven are in any category of threat. This diversity is grouped into 30 families, 88 genera and 12 order, of these Chiroptera (71 spp.) and Rodentia (18 spp.) are the best represented. The zone of life that presented the greatest richness of species was the Tropical Dry Forest with 56, however, these areas have presented a greater investigative effort in relation to others, such as those established above 2000m.a.s.l. Our work reveals the need of new efforts to fill out the mammalian information gaps, as well as management and conservation plans for species and areas.

[Environmental factors associated with habitat preferences by caddisfly larvae in tropical dry forest watersheds (Tolima, Colombia)]. / Factores ambientales asociados con la preferencia de hábitat de larvas de tricópteros en cuencas con bosque seco tropical (Tolima, Colombia).

River ecosystems, mainly those draining tropical dry forests, are among the most endangered tropical ecosystems and a major conservation priority in South America, as elsewhere. In this study, we assessed the influence of environmental factors (e.g., precipitation) and riparian vegetation on Trichoptera larval assemblages colonizing four substrates (rock, gravel, sand, and litter) in the Venadillo and Opia watersheds (Tolima, Colombia). In each river, five 20m reaches nested into two 100m segments (one at -550 and another at -250masl), were surveyed for benthic invertebrates in the above mentioned substrates. In addition, water samples were collected for physicochemical analyses and the QBR index ("qualitat del bosc de ribera" or riparian forest quality) was applied in both rivers. A total of 6,282 larvae were collected, belonging to 11 families and 22 genera, representing 73.30% and 43.13% of the Trichoptera fauna reported to Colombia, respectively. The most abundant families were Hydropsychidae (49.86%) and Philopotamidae (25.44%) and the least abundant Odontoceridae (0.16%) and Hydrobiosidae (0.06%). The genera Smicridea, Chimarra, Protoptila, Neotrichia, and Leptonema, were common during dry and rainy seasons. The main factors related to changes in composition, richness, and abundance of larval Trichoptera were seasonality and riparian vegetation, which can influence organic matter supply, availability and stability of substrates, and colonization and population dynamics. Trichoptera assemblages showed no significant differences among substrates. However sampling points located at high elevation and in non-urbanized areas offered the largest variety of substrates and richness. Our results indicate that Trichoptera larvae are an important biotic element in freshwater ecosystems and that they are sensitive to environmental changes. Hence, our study suggests that caddisflies may be used as potential organisms for the biomonitoring of tropical dry forest rivers. The implementation of these studies is urgent, considering that degradation of freshwater ecosystems tends to be severe and persistent in dry forest.

Factores ambientales asociados con la preferencia de hábitat de larvas de tricópteros en cuencas con bosque seco tropical (Tolima, Colombia)

Environmental factors associated with habitat preferences by caddisfly larvae in tropical dry forest watersheds (Tolima, Colombia). River ecosystems, mainly those draining tropical dry forests, are among the most endangered tropical ecosystems and a major conservation priority in South America, as elsewhere. In this study, we assessed the influence of environmental factors (e.g., precipitation) and riparian vegetation on Trichoptera larval assemblages colonizing four substrates (rock, gravel, sand, and litter) in the Venadillo and Opia watersheds (Tolima, Colombia). In each river, five 20m reaches nested into two 100m segments (one at ~550 and another at ~250masl), were surveyed for benthic invertebrates in the above mentioned substrates. In addition, water samples were collected for physicochemical analyses and the QBR index (“qualitat del bosc de ribera” or riparian forest quality) was applied in both rivers. A total of 6 282 larvae were collected, belonging to 11 families and 22 genera, representing 73.30% and 43.13% of the Trichoptera fauna reported to Colombia, respectively. The most abundant families were Hydropsychidae (49.86%) and Philopotamidae (25.44%) and the least abundant Odontoceridae (0.16%) and Hydrobiosidae (0.06%). The genera Smicridea, Chimarra, Protoptila, Neotrichia, and Leptonema, were common during dry and rainy seasons. The main factors related to changes in composition, richness, and abundance of larval Trichoptera were seasonality and riparian vegetation, which can influence organic matter supply, availability and stability of substrates, and colonization and population dynamics. Trichoptera assemblages showed no significant differences among substrates. However sampling points located at high elevation and in non-urbanized areas offered the largest variety of substrates and richness. Our results indicate that Trichoptera larvae are an important biotic element in freshwater ecosystems and that they are sensitive to environmental changes. Hence, our study suggests that caddisflies may be used as potential organisms for the biomonitoring of tropical dry forest rivers. The implementation of these studies is urgent, considering that degradation of freshwater ecosystems tends to be severe and persistent in dry forest. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62 (Suppl. 2): 21-40. Epub 2014 April 01.

Los ríos de bosques secos tropicales están amenazados en todo el mundo, y en Suramérica son una de las prioridades en términos de conservación. En este estudio se determinó la influencia de variables ambientales (por ejemplo precipitación) y la vegetación ribereña sobre las comunidades del orden Trichoptera en cuatro sustratos (roca, grava, arena y hojarasca) en las cuencas Opia y Venadillo (Tolima, Colombia). En cada río, en dos segmentos de 100m (uno a ~550 y otro a ~250msnm), fueron evaluados los sustratos mencionados anteriormente. Se realizaron análisis físico-químicos, y se aplicó el índice QBR (calidad del bosque de ribera) en ambos ríos. Se recolectaron 6 282 larvas, pertenecientes a 11 familias y 22 géneros, que representan el 73.30% y 43.13% de la fauna Trichoptera registrada en Colombia, respectivamente. Las familias más abundantes fueron Hydropsychidae (49.86%) y Philopotamidae (25.44%). Los géneros Smicridea, Chimarra, Protoptila, Neotrichia y Leptonema fueron comunes en periodos de baja y alta precipitación. Las asociaciones de tricópteros no mostraron diferencias significativas a nivel de sustrato. Los principales factores que determinaron la composición, riqueza y abundancia de tricópteros fueron la estacionalidad y la vegetación de ribera. Sin embargo, las localidades situadas a mayor altitud y no urbanizadas, ofrecen mayor variedad de sustratos y mayor riqueza de géneros. Nuestros resultados indican que a futuro las larvas de Trichoptera constituyen un elemento biótico relevante en los ecosistemas dulceacuícolas, debido a que son sensibles a disturbios ambientales. Por ende, sugerimos el uso de los tricópteros para biomonitoreo en ríos tropicales. La implementación de estos estudios es urgente, teniendo en cuenta que la degradación de los ecosistemas dulceacuícolas tiende a ser intensa y persistente.

Diversidad y distribución de mariposas Satyrinae (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) en la cuenca del río Coello, Colombia

Diversity and distribution of Satyrinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Coello river basin, Colombia. We describe the patterns of diversity and distribution of the subfamily Satyrinae in the Coello river basin (4º 17’ 08’’ N - 74º 35’ 36’’ W; 1 899.31 km²) from 433 to 3 600 m. Eleven sampling stations were located, in several ecosystems. The samples were collected during a period of 11 days, in March, May, July and October 2003, in three types of habitat (forest, forest edge and meadow). We collected at random, between 09:00 and 15:00 hr, using entomological nets. A total of 239 individuals (13 genera, 34 species) were collected. The most abundant species were in the genus Pedaliodes (41.4 %). Richness and diversity had high values in mountainous zones and paramo (> 2 000 m). The greater diversity was measured in the forest edge. The similarity analysis produced two groups: species from warm (Euptychia hesione and Hermeuptychia hermes) and middle (Pseudohaetera hypaesia and Taygetis celia) climate zones; and species from mountain and paramo (Lymanopoda obsoleta, Pedaliodes polusca and Eretris calisto). Rev. Biol. Trop. 55 (2): 645-653. Epub 2007 June, 29.

Este estudio describe los patrones de diversidad y distribución de la subfamilia Satyrinae en la cuenca del río Coello (4º 17’ 08’’ N y 74º 35´ 36" W; 1 899.31 km²), en un gradiente altitudinal de 433 a 3 600 m.s.n.m, con el fin de determinar la diversidad y composición regional y local de este grupo de mariposas y su posible uso como indicador biológico de zonas montanas y de Páramo. Se establecieron 11 estaciones de muestreo las cuales incluyen distintas zonas de vida. Las muestras se recolecciónron durante un periodo de 11 días en marzo, mayo, julio y octubre de 2003, en tres tipos de hábitat (bosque, borde de bosque y pradera). La recolección fue al azar en transectos de longitud no definida, entre las 09:00 y las 15:00 hr, empleando para ello redes lepidopterológicas de 0.5 m de diámetro y 1.20 m de longitud. Para el análisis de datos se calculó el índice de riqueza de Margalef (D) y se registró el porcentaje de abundancia relativa para las especies. La diversidad total por localidad y por hábitat se analizó a través del índice de Shannon (H’). De las matrices de presencia-ausencia se obtuvo índices de similitud entre estaciones, según coeficiente de Jaccard. Se recolectó un total de 239 individuos de 13 géneros y 34 especies. Las especies más abundantes fueron especialmente del género Pedaliodes, representando el 41.4%. La riqueza y diversidad, presentaron un comportamiento similar, mostrando altos valores en zonas montanas y de Páramo (> 2000 m.s.n.m). En cuanto a la diversidad por hábitat, se observó la mayor diversidad en el borde de bosque. El análisis de similitud evidenció dos grupos claramente definidos. El primer grupo contempla especies propias de zonas cálidas (Euptychia hesione y Hermeuptychia hermes) y templadas (Pseudohaetera hypaesia y Taygetis celia), mientras el segundo presenta especies exclusivas de zonas montanas y de Páramo (Lymanopoda obsoleta, Pedaliodes polusca y Eretris calisto).

[Diversity and distribution of Satyrinae butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in the Coello river basin, Colombia]. / Diversidad y distribución de mariposas Satyrinae (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) en la cuenca del río Coello, Colombia.

We describe the patterns of diversity and distribution of the subfamily Satyrinae in the Coello river basin (4 degrees 17' 08" N - 74 degrees 35' 36" W; 1,899.31 km2) from 433 to 3,600 m. Eleven sampling stations were located, in several ecosystems. The samples were collected during a period of 11 days, in March, May, July and October 2003, in three types of habitat (forest, forest edge and meadow). We collected at random, between 09:00 and 15:00 hr, using entomological nets. A total of 239 individuals (13 genera, 34 species) were collected. The most abundant species were in the genus Pedaliodes (41.4 %). Richness and diversity had high values in mountainous zones and paramo (> 2,000 m). The greater diversity was measured in the forest edge. The similarity analysis produced two groups: species from warm (Euptychia hesione and Hermeuptychia hermes) and middle (Pseudohaetera hypaesia and Taygetis celia) climate zones; and species from mountain and paramo (Lymanopoda obsoleta, Pedaliodes polusca and Eretris calisto).