The application of a single session of capacitive resistive electric transfer 24 h before exercise modifies the accelerometric pattern in standardbred racing trotters.

BACKGROUND: It has been reported that capacitive resistive electric transfer (CRET) increases blood circulation, hemoglobin oxygenation and temperature in muscles. The attributed benefits of these changes have been linked to improved athletic performance, enhanced muscle flexibility and fastening recovery from exercise-induced fatigue. For all of this, the present research aims to investigate whether the application of CRET 24 h before exercise affects the accelerometric pattern in horses during exercise. Six sound Standardbred trotters were subjected to a CRET session of 40 min of duration, applied on both sides of the neck, back and croup, 24 h before a training session. Training sessions consisted of a warming-up (WU) for 6400 m and a training bout (TB) at their maximal training speed for 1600 m. The same protocol was followed for the device off (sham protocol), also applied 24 h before the training session. CRET and sham experiments were separated by one week, the order of application of both was randomly defined for each individual and drivers were blinded for the duration of the experiment. During the training sessions, horses wore an accelerometer fixed at the sternal level. Speed, stride frequency (SF), length (SL), regularity and symmetry and accelerometric activities were measured during WU and TB. RESULTS: CRET increased speed, mediolateral and total accelerometric activities during WU and speed, SL, dorsoventral, longitudinal and total accelerometric activities during TB, but stride regularity and symmetry decreased. CONCLUSION: The application of CRET 24 h before exercise increased speed and accelerometric activities, results that highlight the need to evaluate the interaction between CRET and training in order to develop new methods to limit fatigue. However, the decrease in stride regularity and symmetry after CRET application could be negative effects, which could be attributed to the increased speed.

Objective Assessment of Equine Locomotor Symmetry Using an Inertial Sensor System and Artificial Intelligence: A Comparative Study.

In horses, quantitative assessment of gait parameters, as with the use of inertial measurement units (IMUs) systems, might help in the decision-making process. However, it requires financial investment, is time-consuming, and lacks accuracy if displaced. An innovative artificial intelligence marker-less motion tracking system (AI-MTS) may overcome these limitations in the field. Our aim was to compare the level of agreement and accuracy between both systems and visual clinical assessment. Twenty horses underwent locomotion analysis by visual assessment, IMUs, and AI-MTS systems, under the following conditions: straight hard (SH), straight soft (SS), left and right circle hard (LCH, RCH), and soft (LCS, RCS). A greater number of horses were considered sound by clinical examination, compared to those identified as symmetric by the two gait analysis systems. More limbs were considered asymmetric by the AI-MTS compared to IMUs, suggesting its greater sensitivity. The greatest agreement between the two systems was found for the difference between two minima in vertical head position in SH, while the lowest for the difference between two minima in vertical pelvis position in SS, reflecting the difficulties in assessing asymmetry of the hindlimbs. It is unknown what degree of asymmetry is clinically relevant, suggesting that more consistent use in training horses may help determine the thresholds for asymmetry. Some degree of asymmetry may be clinically relevant, suggesting its regular use in training horses.

Promotion of Pregnant Merino Ewes' Welfare with the Introduction of a Drought- and High-Temperature-Resistant Cereal into Their Diet: Analysis of Tritordeum Meadow.

Tritordeum is a new cereal resistant to drought and high temperatures, and it is a very healthy crop. The aim of this study was to compare two different diets (tritordeum meadow vs. oat meadow) for grazing pregnant ewes to determine if there was any effect on the objective physiological indicators of animal welfare. A total of 150 pregnant Merino ewes (3-5 years) were randomly divided into two groups (n = 75 each) to be fed with two different meadows, being evaluated during the spring season. Red blood cells count, haemoglobin, packed cell volume, white blood cell count, neutrophiles/lymphocytes ratio, lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine phosphokinase, aspartate aminotransferase, glucose, cortisol, total plasma proteins, albumin, globulins, albumin/globulins ratio, alkaline phosphatase, glutamate dehydrogenase, IgA, and IgG were determined. Overall, the results of this study indicate that the welfare of pregnant ewes fed with tritordeum meadow was better than that of pregnant ewes fed with oat meadow. Tritordeum meadow had a positive influence on the physiological parameters of animal welfare studied in pregnant Merino ewes. Therefore, tritordeum meadow can be considered a functional feed, as it has a beneficial effect on health beyond its basic nutritional value. Farmers are recommended to feed a cereal such as tritordeum grassland to their sheep, as it not only ensures that the animals benefit from all the nutrients, but also prevents diseases and improves their quality of life. In addition, the cereal's resistance to fungal diseases makes it suitable for use in sustainable production systems with a reduced environmental footprint.

Influence of the Slaughter Method on the Hygienic Quality of Beef Cattle Meat and Animal Welfare Biomarkers.

The main objective of this research was to carry out a comparative study between different types of slaughter in beef cattle with and without stunning. In addition, the hygienic quality of the obtained meat was determined through microbiological analysis and the animal welfare at the time of slaughtering was assessed by means of physiological parameters. A total of 52 blood samples collected at the slaughterhouse during slaughter (10 for each type of slaughter: regular, halal, and halal with stunning; 10 at the time of resting; and 12 from rotating box slaughter) were analysed for physiological parameters indicating animal welfare status, namely, glucose, cortisol, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK). In addition, the meat from 30 of the above animals was analysed for aerobic mesophilic bacteria, enterobacteria and coliforms. Moreover, a radiological study of the possible skull damage due to the non-penetrative captive bolt used at the time of stunning in the halal rite slaughter was carried out. A significance difference (p < 0.05) in the microbiological counts per type of slaughter was observed. It was proven that the amounts of glucose, LDH, CK, and cortisol in plasma were influenced (p < 0.05) by the type of slaughter. The halal rite slaughter using stunning with a non-penetrative captive bolt resulted in the best hygienic quality of meat and obtained the lowest values for all animal welfare biomarkers.

Previous Exercise on a Water Treadmill at Different Depths Affects the Accelerometric Pattern Recorded on a Track in Horses.

During a water treadmill (WT) exercise, horses change their accelerometric patterns. We aimed to analyze if these changes persist during terrestrial locomotion. Six horses were randomly subjected to 40 min duration WT exercises, without water (WW), at the depth of fetlock (FET), carpus (CAR) and stifle (STF), with a day off between them. Before and after 30 min after WT, horses were evaluated at walk and at trot on a track with a triaxial accelerometer fixed on the pectoral (PECT) and sacrum (SML) regions. The percent of change from baseline (before WT and after each exercise session) were calculated. Total, dorsoventral, longitudinal and mediolateral accelerometric activities and dorsoventral displacement increased with the accelerometer in PECT but decreased after WT at STF. Velocity increased with the accelerometer in PECT but decreased with the accelerometer in SML, particularly after WT at STF. A reduction in stride frequency was found with the accelerometer in PECT. SL increased with the accelerometer in SML but decreased with WT at STF. Some accelerometric changes that happened on WT remained shortly in terrestrial locomotion. The reduction in some parameters after WT at STF depth seems to indicate fatigue. This should be considered in training or rehabilitation programs for unfit animals.

Evaluation of Two Equations for Prediction of Digestible Energy in Mixed Feeds and Diets for Horses.

Several authors have developed equations for estimating digestible energy in horse feeds as an alternative to the inconveniences of in vivo digestibility assays. We aimed to evaluate two of such equations. A dataset was constructed from the literature with 32 mixed feeds and diets of known proximate composition, whose digestibility was measured in in vivo assays. Then, the digestible energy of the mixed feeds and diets was predicted with both equations from their proximate components. Precision, accuracy, reproducibility, bias, and decomposition of total error of predictions were determined. Both equations performed almost equally well (R2 = 0.89 vs. 0.87, root mean square error of prediction = 183 vs. 217 kcal/kg dry matter, concordance correlation coefficient = 0.91 vs. 0.86, and linear error = 24.6 vs. 33.6% of total error). Linear bias (p < 0.01 in both equations) resulted in overvaluation of low digestible energy feeds and, to a lesser extent, undervaluation of high digestible energy feeds and was significantly (p < 0.05) related to crude fiber. The obtained results indicate that the accuracy of both equations could be improved by reassessing the effects of crude fiber on the digestibility of the other proximate components.

Assessment of Age Effects on Ovarian Hemodynamics Using Doppler Ultrasound and Progesterone Concentrations in Cycling Spanish Purebred Mares.

In equine reproduction, accurate and timely detection of the moment of ovulation is of great importance. Power Doppler ultrasound technology is a non-invasive method that enables to assess the morpho-echogenic features and blood flow changes during the estral cycle in mares. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the influence of age on ultrasonographic parameters (follicular diameter, follicular blood flow-FBF, corpus luteum (CL) area and corpus luteum blood flow-CLBF) and blood plasma progesterone concentrations in cycling Spanish Purebred mares (15 less than 8 years old and 15 equal o higher than 8 years old). The ultrasound images obtained were analyzed with the Image Colour Summarizer software, which allows the quantification of the pixels of each image. Young mares had significantly higher FBF, CLBF and plasma progesterone levels. Moreover, linear regression analysis showed that blood progesterone levels could be predicted in both groups from CLBF with moderate precision and accuracy. In conclusion, Power Doppler was useful to assess ovarian hemodynamics. Our results support that age is a factor that significantly influences FBF and CLBF as well as blood progesterone concentration in mares. More studies would be needed to develop high precision and accuracy predictive models of blood progesterone concentration from CLBF measured by Power Doppler.

CNVxplorer: a web tool to assist clinical interpretation of CNVs in rare disease patients.

Copy Number Variants (CNVs) are an important cause of rare diseases. Array-based Comparative Genomic Hybridization tests yield a ∼12% diagnostic rate, with ∼8% of patients presenting CNVs of unknown significance. CNVs interpretation is particularly challenging on genomic regions outside of those overlapping with previously reported structural variants or disease-associated genes. Recent studies showed that a more comprehensive evaluation of CNV features, leveraging both coding and non-coding impacts, can significantly improve diagnostic rates. However, currently available CNV interpretation tools are mostly gene-centric or provide only non-interactive annotations difficult to assess in the clinical practice. Here, we present CNVxplorer, a web server suited for the functional assessment of CNVs in a clinical diagnostic setting. CNVxplorer mines a comprehensive set of clinical, genomic, and epigenomic features associated with CNVs. It provides sequence constraint metrics, impact on regulatory elements and topologically associating domains, as well as expression patterns. Analyses offered cover (a) agreement with patient phenotypes; (b) visualizations of associations among genes, regulatory elements and transcription factors; (c) enrichment on functional and pathway annotations and (d) co-occurrence of terms across PubMed publications related to the query CNVs. A flexible evaluation workflow allows dynamic re-interrogation in clinical sessions. CNVxplorer is publicly available at http://cnvxplorer.com.

Quality of Life: Changes in Self-Perception in People with down Syndrome as a Result of Being Part of a Football/Soccer Team. Self-Reports and External Reports.

The hypothesis posed was whether being part of a football/soccer team influenced the quality of life (QL) of the people who participated in it since their perception of themselves is enhanced by factors, such as self-determination, social inclusion, emotional well-being, physical well-being, material well-being, rights, personal development, and internal relationships. The objective was to evaluate the QL of people with Down Syndrome (DS) using their self-perception (n = 39) and the perception of the informants (family members, teachers) (n = 39). The KidsLife-Down Scale, with a few modifications, was used. In general, differences of opinion between the subgroups of participants with DS and informants showed that results were higher in terms of perception for participants in the DS subgroup. Scores for all variables were higher for those participants with DS who said they did engage in practicing competitive football/soccer. Although the perception of informants provides a great deal of information regarding the QL of participants with DS, participants with DS should also be involved in the evaluation process and their self-perceptions taken into account. It is not participating in a football team that causes the conclusions of the study, but training (which includes the friendly matches that are played), the cause correlated with the improvements detected in the athlete's DS.

DatAC: A visual analytics platform to explore climate and air quality indicators associated with the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain.

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has caused an unprecedented global health crisis, with several countries imposing lockdowns to control the coronavirus spread. Important research efforts are focused on evaluating the association of environmental factors with the survival and spread of the virus and different works have been published, with contradictory results in some cases. Data with spatial and temporal information is a key factor to get reliable results and, although there are some data repositories for monitoring the disease both globally and locally, an application that integrates and aggregates data from meteorological and air quality variables with COVID-19 information has not been described so far to the best of our knowledge. Here, we present DatAC (Data Against COVID-19), a data fusion project with an interactive web frontend that integrates COVID-19 and environmental data in Spain. DatAC is provided with powerful data analysis and statistical capabilities that allow users to explore and analyze individual trends and associations among the provided data. Using the application, we have evaluated the impact of the Spanish lockdown on the air quality, observing that NO2, CO, PM2.5, PM10 and SO2 levels decreased drastically in the entire territory, while O3 levels increased. We observed similar trends in urban and rural areas, although the impact has been more important in the former. Moreover, the application allowed us to analyze correlations among climate factors, such as ambient temperature, and the incidence of COVID-19 in Spain. Our results indicate that temperature is not the driving factor and without effective control actions, outbreaks will appear and warm weather will not substantially limit the growth of the pandemic. DatAC is available at https://covid19.genyo.es.

Beef from Calves Finished with a Diet Based on Concentrate Rich in Agro-Industrial By-Products: Acceptability and Quality Label Preferences in Spanish Meat Consumers.

Conjoint analysis was used to estimate the relative importance of some of the main extrinsic attributes and quality labels of beef in three Spanish cities (Córdoba, Marbella, and Santa Pola) in a study performed with 300 individuals. Consumers were segmented according to their frequency of consumption. Willingness to pay for different meats was also calculated from the conjoint analysis results. Consumer liking of beef that had been finished with an alternative concentrate rich in agro-industrial by-products and aged for three different durations as compared to conventionally finished beef was also evaluated using the same consumers. The most important attribute for Spanish consumers was the price (28%), followed by origin (25%), animal welfare certification (19%), protected geographical indication (14%), and organic agriculture certification (14%). Most consumers preferred beef from Spain at the lowest possible price and with the highest number of quality labels. Consumers were willing to pay a premium of 1.49, 3.61, and 5.53 EUR over 14 EUR/kg for organic certification, protected geographical indication, and animal welfare certification, respectively. Sensory analysis revealed that, for regular consumers, beef finished with an alternative concentrate rich in agro-industrial by-products offered several hedonic advantages (color, flavor, and tenderness) when compared to beef finished using a conventional diet, while occasional consumers did not find any difference between the two kinds of meat.

Is Virtual Reality Effective for Balance Recovery in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Virtual reality (VR) is an emerging tool used in the neurological rehabilitation of patients with spinal cord injury (SCI), focused on recovering balance, mobility, and motor function, among other functional outcomes. The main objective of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of VR systems to recover balance in patients with SCI. The literature search was performed between October and December 2019 in the following databases: Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, Scopus, Medline, Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro), PubMed, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The methodological quality of each study was assessed using the Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence (SCIRE) system and the PEDro scale, while the risk of bias was analyzed by the Cochrane Collaboration's tool. A total of 12 studies, involving 188 participants, were included in the systematic review, of which two were included in the meta-analysis. Statistical analysis showed favorable results for balance measured by the modified Functional Reach Test (standardized mean difference (SMD) = 3.42; 95% confidence interval: 2.54 to 4.29) and by the t-shirt test (SMD= -2.29; 95% confidence interval: -3.00 to -1.59). The results showed that VR interventions provided potential benefits, in addition to conventional physical therapy, to recover balance in patients with SCI.

NOMePlot: analysis of DNA methylation and nucleosome occupancy at the single molecule.

Recent technical advances highlight that to understand mammalian development and human disease we need to consider transcriptional and epigenetic cell-to-cell differences within cell populations. This is particularly important in key areas of biomedicine like stem cell differentiation and intratumor heterogeneity. The recently developed nucleosome occupancy and methylome (NOMe) assay facilitates the simultaneous study of DNA methylation and nucleosome positioning on the same DNA strand. NOMe-treated DNA can be sequenced by sanger (NOMe-PCR) or high throughput approaches (NOMe-seq). NOMe-PCR provides information for a single locus at the single molecule while NOMe-seq delivers genome-wide data that is usually interrogated to obtain population-averaged measures. Here, we have developed a bioinformatic tool that allow us to easily obtain locus-specific information at the single molecule using genome-wide NOMe-seq datasets obtained from bulk populations. We have used NOMePlot to study mouse embryonic stem cells and found that polycomb-repressed bivalent gene promoters coexist in two different epigenetic states, as defined by the nucleosome binding pattern detected around their transcriptional start site.

Human predecidual stromal cells are mesenchymal stromal/stem cells and have a therapeutic effect in an immune-based mouse model of recurrent spontaneous abortion.

BACKGROUND: Human decidual stromal cells (DSCs) are involved in the maintenance and development of pregnancy, in which they play a key role in the induction of immunological maternal-fetal tolerance. Precursors of DSCs (preDSCs) are located around the vessels, and based on their antigen phenotype, previous studies suggested a relationship between preDSCs and mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs). This work aimed to further elucidate the MSC characteristics of preDSCs. METHODS: We established 15 human preDSC lines and 3 preDSC clones. Physiological differentiation (decidualization) of these cell lines and clones was carried out by in vitro culture with progesterone (P4) and cAMP. Decidualization was confirmed by the change in cellular morphology and prolactin (PRL) secretion, which was determined by enzyme immunoassay of the culture supernatants. We also studied MSC characteristics: (1) In mesenchymal differentiation, under appropriate culture conditions, these preDSC lines and clones differentiated into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes, and differentiation was confirmed by cytochemical assays and RT-PCR. (2) The expression of stem cell markers was determined by RT-PCR. (3) Cloning efficiency was evaluated by limited dilution. (4) Immunoregulatory activity in vivo was estimated in DBA/2-mated CBA/J female mice, a murine model of immune-based recurrent abortion. (5) Survival of preDSC in immunocompetent mice was analyzed by RT-PCR and flow cytometry. RESULTS: Under the effect of P4 and cAMP, the preDSC lines and clones decidualized in vitro: the cells became rounder and secreted PRL, a marker of physiological decidualization. PreDSC lines and clones also exhibited MSC characteristics. They differentiated into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes, and preDSC lines expressed stem cell markers OCT-4, NANOG, and ABCG2; exhibited a cloning efficiency of 4 to 15%; significantly reduced the embryo resorption rate (P < 0.001) in the mouse model of abortion; and survived for prolonged periods in immunocompetent mice. The fact that 3 preDSC clones underwent both decidualization and mesenchymal differentiation shows that the same type of cell exhibited both DSC and MSC characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Together, our results confirm that preDSCs are decidual MSCs and suggest that these cells are involved in the mechanisms of maternal-fetal immune tolerance.

Association between traditional standing vertical jumps and a soccer-specific vertical jump.

The present study aimed to determine the relationships between a soccer-specific vertical jump (ssVJ) test, that included common elements of a soccer VJ (e.g. run-up and intention to head), and three traditional VJ tests using elite soccer players. A secondary purpose of this study was to determine the reliability of the VJs used in the analysis. A randomised order and counterbalanced design was used to assess the relationships between these VJs [countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump for height (DJh), drop jump for maximum height and minimum ground contact time (DJh/t) and the ssVJ]. Take-off velocity, contact time and flight time were the dependent variables of interest and compared between jumps. Intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC) and coefficient of variation (CV) were used as measures of inter-session reliability. All VJ tests were found to have high ICCs (0.89-0.99) and acceptable within-subject CVs (<7.5%). All the ssVJ dependent variables were not significantly related (r<0.44) with similar variables from the CMJ and DJh tests and only moderately related (r=~0.49) with the DJh/t test variables. In addition, the DJh/t variables were not significantly correlated (r<0.47) with DJh and CMJ test variables. In conclusion, it would seem that the proposed ssVJ test and CMJ or DJh tests assess different leg qualities and thought should be given before using them interchangeably to assess or develop the same performance measures (i.e. velocity at take-off or jump height).

Reliability and validity of a wireless microelectromechanicals based system (keimove™) for measuring vertical jumping performance.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to determine the validity and reliability of a microelectromechanicals (MEMs) based system (Keimove™) in measuring flight time and takeoff velocity during a counter-movement jump (CMJ). As criterion reference, data of a high- speed camera (HSC) and a force-platform (FP) synchronized with a linear position transducer (LPT) was used. Thirty professional soccer players completely familiarized with the CMJ technique performed three CMJs. The second and third trials were used for further analysis. The Keimove™ system, the HSC and the FP synchronized with the LPT (FP+LPT) simultaneously measured the CMJ performance. During each repetition, the Keimove™ system registered flight time and velocity at takeoff. At the same time and as criterion reference, both the HSC and the FP recorded the flight time while the LPT+FP registered the velocity at takeoff. Pearson correlation coefficients for the flight time were high (r = 0.99; p < 0.001) when Keimove™ system was compared with the HSC or the FP+LPT, respectively. For the velocity at takeoff variable, the Pearson r between the Keimove™ system and the FP+LPT was lower although significant at the 0.05 level. No significant differences in mean values were observed for flight times and velocity at takeoff between the three devices. Intraclass correlations and coefficients of variation between trials were similar and ranged between 0.92-0.97 and 2.1-7.4, respectively. In conclusion, the Keimove™ system represents a valid and reliable instrument to measure velocity at takeoff and flight time during CMJ testing. Thus, this MEMs-based system will offer a portable, cost-effective tool for the assessment CMJ performance. KEY POINTS: The Keimove™ system is composed of specific software and a wireless MEMs-based device designed to be attached at the lumbar region of the athlete.The Keimove™ system is a mechanically valid and reliable instrument in measuring flight time and velocity at takeoff during CMJ.The validity of the Keimove™ system was determined by comparing its mean flight time and velocity at takeoff with data obtained simultaneously with both a high-speed camera and a force platform synchronized with a linear position transducer.

Relationship between traditional and ballistic squat exercise with vertical jumping and maximal sprinting.

The purpose of this study was to quantify the magnitude of the relationship between vertical jumping and maximal sprinting at different distances with performance in the traditional and ballistic concentric squat exercise in well-trained sprinters. Twenty-one men performed 2 types of barbell squats (ballistic and traditional) across different loads with the aim of determining the maximal peak and average power outputs and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) values. Moreover, vertical jumping (countermovement jump test [CMJ]) and maximal sprints over 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, and 80 m were also assessed. In respect to 1RM in traditional squat, (a) no significant correlation was found with CMJ performance; (b) positive strong relationships (p < 0.01) were obtained with all the power measures obtained during both ballistic and traditional squat exercises (r = 0.53-0.90); (c) negative significant correlations (r = -0.49 to -0.59, p < 0.05) were found with sprint times in all the sprint distances measured when squat strength was expressed as a relative value; however, in the absolute mode, no significant relationships were observed with 10- and 20-m sprint times. No significant relationship was found between 10-m sprint time and relative or absolute power outputs using either ballistic or traditional squat exercises. Sprint time at 20 m was only related to ballistic and traditional squat performance when power values were expressed in relative terms. Moderate significant correlations (r = -0.39 to -0.56, p < 0.05) were observed between sprint times at 30 and 40 m and the absolute/relative power measures attained in both ballistic and traditional squat exercises. Sprint times at 60 and 80 m were mainly related to ballistic squat power outputs. Although correlations can only give insights into associations and not into cause and effect, from this investigation, it can be seen that traditional squat strength has little in common with CMJ performance and that relative 1RM and power outputs for both squat exercises are statistically correlated to most sprint distances underlying the importance of strength and power to sprinting.

Evaluation of different iron compounds in chlorotic Italian lemon trees (Citrus lemon).

The severe deficiency of iron or ferric chlorosis is a serious problem of most citrus trees established in calcareous soils, as a result of the low availability of iron in these soils and the poor uptake and limited transport of this nutrient in trees. The objective of this study was to evaluate the response of chlorotic Italian lemon trees (Citrus lemon) to the application of iron compounds to roots and stems. On comparing the effects of aqueous solutions of ferric citrate, ferrous sulphate and FeEDDHA chelate, applied to 20% of the roots grown in soil and sand, of trees that were planted in pots containing calcareous soil, it was observed that the chelate fully corrected ferric chlorosis, while citrate and sulphate did not solve the problem. EDDHA induced the root uptake of iron as well as the movement of the nutrient up to the leaves. With the use of injections of ferric solutions into the secondary stem of adult trees, ferric citrate corrected chlorosis but ferrous sulphate did not. The citrate ion expanded the mobility of iron within the plant, from the injection points up to the leaves, whereas the sulphate ion did not sufficiently improve the movement of iron towards the leaf mesophyll.