Early Impact of Proton Beam Therapy on Electrophysiological Characteristics in a Porcine Model.

BACKGROUND: Particle therapy is a noninvasive, catheter-free modality for cardiac ablation. We previously demonstrated the efficacy for creating ablation lesions in the porcine heart. Despite several earlier studies, the exact mechanism of early biophysical effects of proton and photon beam delivery on the myocardium remain incompletely resolved. METHODS: Ten normal and 9 infarcted in situ porcine hearts received proton beam irradiation (40 Gy) delivered to the left ventricular myocardium with follow-up for 8 weeks. High-resolution electroanatomical mapping of the left ventricular was performed at baseline and follow-up. Bipolar voltage amplitude, conduction velocity, and connexin-43 were determined within the irradiated and nonirradiated areas. RESULTS: The irradiated area in normal hearts showed a significant reduction of bipolar voltage amplitude (10.1±4.9 mV versus 5.7±3.2, P<0.0001) and conduction velocity (85±26 versus 55±13 cm/s, P=0.03) beginning at 4 weeks after irradiation. In infarcted myocardium after irradiation, bipolar voltage amplitude of the infarct scar (2.0±2.9 versus 0.8±0.7 mV, P=0.008) was significantly reduced as well as the conduction velocity in the infarcted heart (43.7±15.7 versus 26.3±11.4 cm/s, P=0.02). There were no significant changes in bipolar voltage amplitude and conduction velocity in nonirradiated myocardium. Myocytolysis, capillary hyperplasia, and dilation were seen in the irradiated myocardium 8 weeks after irradiation. Active caspase-3 and reduction of connexin-43 expression began in irradiated myocardium 1 week after irradiation and decreased over 8 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Irradiation of the myocardium with proton beams reduce connexin-43 expression, conduction velocity, and bipolar conducted electrogram amplitude in a large porcine model. The changes in biomarkers preceded electrophysiological changes after proton beam therapy.

Comparison of Microemboli Formation Between Irrigated Catheter Tip Architecture Using a Microemboli Monitoring System.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to compare the efficacy and safety of ablation with high and low power settings using either a flexible tip or straight SF tip irrigated catheter in the left ventricle (LV) using a peripheral microemboli monitoring system. BACKGROUND: The microemboli risk of flexible and straight SF tip irrigated catheters in creating ablative lesions in the LV at variable power settings has not been adequately assessed. METHODS: Six pigs underwent catheter ablation in the LV using a flexible tip or straight SF tip catheter with 2 energy settings (30 or 50 W, 30 seconds, irrigation saline 17 mL/min). RESULTS: A total of 79 radiofrequency (RF) applications were assessed. High power settings via a flexible tip formed a significantly higher arterial microbubble volume in the extracorporeal circulation (P = 0.005). Notably, RF applications with a steam pop induced an exponential increase of microbubble volume with both catheters. A higher power setting induced a significantly higher number of microembolic signals on carotid artery Doppler ultrasound with a flexible tip irrigated catheter (P < 0.001). Similarly, the straight SF tip irrigated catheter tended to increase the number of microembolic signals with 50 W (P = 0.091). CONCLUSIONS: RF ablation at high power settings in the LV carries a risk of microembolic events compared with lower power settings. When high power settings are used for creating ablative lesions for deep intramural foci in the LV, the risk of microembolic events induced by RF ablation should be carefully monitored.

Real-time intracardiac echocardiography validation of saline-enhanced radiofrequency needle-tip ablation: lesion characteristics and gross pathology correlation.

AIMS: With the implementation of saline-enhanced radiofrequency (SERF) needle-tip ablation, real-time validation of lesion formation is needed for the controllable creation of transmural lesions. The aim of the study was to analyse the ability of two-dimensional intracardiac echocardiography (2D-ICE) to guide and validate SERF ablation in real-time. METHODS AND RESULTS: Fifty-six SERF energy deliveries at left ventricular sites of 11 dogs guided by 2D-ICE were analysed (power: 15-50 W; time: 25-120 s; irrigation saline: 60°C with 10 mL/min flow rate). Catheter tip/tissue orientation and lesion formation could be well detected by 2D-ICE in 49 (87.5%) energy deliveries. Gross pathology analysis confirmed excellent 2D-ICE lesion localization, the ability to detect transmural lesions (70% sensitivity, 47% specificity) and positive correlation between 2D-ICE and the corresponding gross pathology measurements of 'maximal lesion depth'; (repeated measures correlation: rrm = 0.43, P = 0.012) and 'depth at maximal lesion width' (D@MW; rrm = 0.51, P = 0.003). The median angle between SERF catheter tip and endocardium was 76° [interquartile range (IQR) 58-83°]. The more perpendicular the catheter tip/tissue orientation was the deeper D@MW (rrm = 0.32, P = 0.045). Grade 3 microbubbles on 2D-ICE during ablation, indicating inadequate catheter tip/tissue contact, was associated with smaller lesion volumes than with Grade 1 microbubbles (284.8 mm3 [IQR 151.3-343.1] vs. 2114.1 mm3 [IQR 1437.0-3026.3], P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: With excellent lesion localization and a 70% detection rate of transmural lesions, 2D-ICE is well suited to validate SERF ablation lesion formation in real-time. The catheter tip/tissue angle impacts the lesion formation and through perpendicular catheter positioning, deeper intramural areas of the myocardium can be reached.

Treatment-Related Changes in Left Atrial Structure in Atrial Fibrillation: Findings From the CABANA Imaging Substudy.

[Figure: see text].

Impact of myocardial fiber orientation on lesions created by a novel heated saline-enhanced radiofrequency needle-tip catheter: An MRI lesion validation study.

BACKGROUND: Irrigated needle catheter ablation is efficacious for creation of transmural lesions in the left ventricle (LV). However, interdependence of needle orientation and myocardial fiber orientation and the resulting influence on lesion creation remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of myocardial fiber orientation on reproducibility and controllability of lesion creation in LV myocardium using a heated saline-enhanced radiofrequency (SERF) needle-tip catheter system. METHODS: Eleven dogs underwent catheter ablation using this novel catheter. Ablative lesions were created using different power and ablation times (15-50 W; application 25-120 seconds; 60°C irrigation saline at 10 mL/min). Hearts were explanted, and lesions were evaluated using 3-T cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), gross pathologic, and histologic investigations. RESULTS: Forty-three of 57 lesions (75.4%) were transmural, and lesion depth reached approximately 90% of LV wall thickness. Lesion volume in both gross pathology and ex vivo CMR showed a positive linear correlation with power × radiofrequency (RF) time index (r = 0.637, P <.001; and r = 0.786, P <.001, respectively). Maximum width (circumferential direction of LV) and maximum length (long-axis direction) of all lesions were distributed in the middle layer of LV where myocardium runs circumferentially. Paired-sample t-test showed maximum lesion width was significantly greater than maximum lesion length by both CMR and gross pathologic evaluation (26.1 ± 9.6 mm vs 17.2 ± 6.7 mm, P <.001; and 22.5 ± 7.7 mm vs 18.6 ± 5.9 mm, P <.001, respectively). CONCLUSION: This catheter showed feasibility in creating transmural LV lesions. Power × RF time index was strongly correlated with lesion volume and predicted lesion size. More importantly, SERF lesions extended along the myocardial fiber orientation.

Characterization of Lesions Created by a Heated, Saline Irrigated Needle-Tip Catheter in the Normal and Infarcted Canine Heart.

BACKGROUND: Inability to eliminate intramural arrhythmogenic substrate may lead to recurrent ventricular tachycardia after catheter ablation. The aim of the present study was to evaluate intramural and full thickness lesion formation using a heated saline-enhanced radiofrequency (SERF) needle-tip catheter, compared with a conventional ablation catheter in normal and infarcted myocardium. METHODS: Twenty-two adult mongrel dogs (30-40 kg, 15 normal and 7 myocardial infarct group) were studied. Lesions were created using the SERF catheter (40 W/50 °C) or a standard contact force (CF) catheter in both groups. RESULTS: Comparing SERF to CF ablation, the SERF catheter produced larger lesion volumes than the standard CF catheter-even with >20 g of CF-in both normal (983.1±905.8 versus 461.9±178.3 mm3; P=0.023) and infarcted left ventricular myocardium (1052.3±543.0 versus 340.3±160.5 mm3; P=0.001). SERF catheter lesions were more often transmural than standard CF lesions with >20 g of CF in both groups (59.1% versus 7.7%; P<0.001 and 60.0% versus 12.5%; P=0.017, respectively). Using the SERF catheter, mean depth of ablated lesions reached 90% of the left ventricular wall in both normal and infarcted myocardium. CONCLUSIONS: The SERF catheter created more transmural and larger ablative lesions in both normal and infarcted canine myocardium. SERF ablation is a promising new approach for endocardial intramural and full thickness ablation of ventricular tachycardia substrate that is not accessible with current techniques.

Catheter-Free Arrhythmia Ablation Using Scanned Proton Beams: Electrophysiologic Outcomes, Biophysics, and Characterization of Lesion Formation in a Porcine Model.

BACKGROUND: Proton beam therapy offers radiophysical properties that are appealing for noninvasive arrhythmia elimination. This study was conducted to use scanned proton beams for ablation of cardiac tissue, investigate electrophysiological outcomes, and characterize the process of lesion formation in a porcine model using particle therapy. METHODS: Twenty-five animals received scanned proton beam irradiation. ECG-gated computed tomography scans were acquired at end-expiration breath hold. Structures (atrioventricular junction or left ventricular myocardium) and organs at risk were contoured. Doses of 30, 40, and 55 Gy were delivered during expiration to the atrioventricular junction (n=5) and left ventricular myocardium (n=20) of intact animals. RESULTS: In this study, procedural success was tracked by pacemaker interrogation in the atrioventricular junction group, time-course magnetic resonance imaging in the left ventricular group, and correlation of lesion outcomes displayed in gross and microscopic pathology. Protein extraction (active caspase-3) was performed to investigate tissue apoptosis. Doses of 40 and 55 Gy caused slowing and interruption of cardiac impulse propagation at the atrioventricular junction. In 40 left ventricular irradiated targets, all lesions were identified on magnetic resonance after 12 weeks, being consistent with outcomes from gross pathology. In the majority of cases, lesion size plateaued between 12 and 16 weeks. Active caspase-3 was seen in lesions 12 and 16 weeks after irradiation but not after 20 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Scanned proton beams can be used as a tool for catheter-free ablation, and time-course of tissue apoptosis was consistent with lesion maturation.

Catheter-free ablation of infarct scar through proton beam therapy: Tissue effects in a porcine model.

BACKGROUND: Scar-related ventricular arrhythmias are common after myocardial infarction. Catheter ablation can improve prognosis, but the procedure is invasive and results are not always satisfactory. Noninvasive, catheter-free ablation using ionizing radiation has recently gained interest among electrophysiologists, but the tissue effects and physiological outcome have not been fully characterized. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural effects of cardiac scanned pencil beam proton therapy on infarct scar, the time course of imaging biomarkers, arrhythmias, and cardiac function in a porcine model. METHODS: Fourteen infarcted swine underwent proton beam treatment of the scar (40 or 30 Gy) and were followed for up to 30 weeks. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed every 4 weeks. RESULTS: Treated scar areas showed a significantly lower fraction of surviving myocytes at 30 weeks compared to untreated scar (30.1% ± 18.5% and 59.9% ± 10.1% in treated and untreated infarct, respectively), indicating scar homogenization. Four animals died suddenly during follow-up, all from documented monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. Cardiac function remained stable over the course of the study. Distinct imaging morphologies corresponded to certain tissue dose ranges and time points. CONCLUSION: Radioablation of cardiac infarct scar leads to significant homogenization of the scar, replicating the histologic effects of radiofrequency ablation. These changes correspond to distinct imaging morphologies on delayed contrast-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, enabling noninvasive confirmation of tissue ablation effects The present study is the first to thoroughly investigate the structural effects of cardiac proton beam therapy in infarcted myocardium.

Biophysical properties, efficacy, and lesion characteristics of a new linear cryoablation catheter in a canine model.

BACKGROUND: The cryoballoon (CB) catheter is an established tool for pulmonary vein isolation (PVI), but its use is limited for that purpose. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the biophysical properties of a newly developed linear cryoablation catheter for creation of linear ablation lesions in an in vivo model. METHODS: Twenty-nine dogs (14 acutely ablated, 15 chronically followed) underwent cryoablation using the linear cryoablation catheter. Regions of interest included the cavotricuspid isthmus (CTI), mitral isthmus (MI), left atrial (LA) roof, and LA posterior wall in an acute study. Cryoablations for CTI and MI were performed in 14 atrial fibrillation animals after PVI and followed over 1 month in the chronic study. Tissue temperature during cryoablation was monitored using implanted thermocouples in the regions of interest. Gross and microscopic pathologic characteristics of the lesions were assessed. RESULTS: In acute animals, lesion length (transmurality) was CTI 34 ± 4 mm (89% ± 11%); MI 29 ± 4 mm (90% ± 13%); LA roof 19 ± 3 mm (90% ± 8%); and LA posterior wall 19 ± 2 mm (81% ± 13%), with 1 or 2 freezes. Chronic bidirectional block was achieved in 13 of 14 CTI (93%) and 10 of 14 MI (71%) ablations after 1-month follow-up and was consistent with lesion continuity and transmurality upon pathology. The lowest tissue temperature correlated well with the closest distance to the linear cryocatheter (r = 0.688; P <.001). CONCLUSION: This linear cryocatheter created continuous and transmural linear lesions with "single-shot" cryoenergy application and has the potential for clinical use in the setting of various arrhythmias.

Spatial Accuracy of a Clinically Established Noninvasive Electrocardiographic Imaging System for the Detection of Focal Activation in an Intact Porcine Model.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive electrocardiographic imaging (ECGi) is used clinically to map arrhythmias before ablation. Despite its clinical use, validation data regarding the accuracy of the system for the identification of arrhythmia foci is limited. METHODS: Nine pigs underwent closed-chest placement of endocardial fiducial markers, computed tomography, and pacing in all cardiac chambers with ECGi acquisition. Pacing location was reconstructed from biplane fluoroscopy and registered to the computed tomography using the fiducials. A blinded investigator predicted the pacing location from the ECGi data, and the distance to the true pacing catheter tip location was calculated. RESULTS: A total of 109 endocardial and 9 epicardial locations were paced in 9 pigs. ECGi predicted the correct chamber of origin in 85% of atrial and 92% of ventricular sites. Lateral locations were predicted in the correct chamber more often than septal locations (97% versus 79%, P=0.01). Absolute distances in space between the true and predicted pacing locations were 20.7 (13.8-25.6) mm (median and [first-third] quartile). Distances were not significantly different across cardiac chambers. CONCLUSIONS: The ECGi system is able to correctly identify the chamber of origin for focal activation in the vast majority of cases. Determination of the true site of origin is possible with sufficient accuracy with consideration of these error estimates.

Left ventricular function after noninvasive cardiac ablation using proton beam therapy in a porcine model.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive cardiac ablation of ventricular tachycardia (VT) using radiotherapy has recently gained interest among electrophysiologists. The effects of left ventricular (LV) ablative radiation treatment on global LV function and volumes are unknown. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of noninvasive ablation on LV function over time. METHODS: Twenty domestic swine underwent proton beam treatment of LV sites in a dose-finding design and were followed for up to 40 weeks by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging at 4-week intervals. Doses investigated were either 40 Gy at 1 site (n = 8) or 30 Gy at 2 sites (n = 4) in the low-dose group and 40 Gy at 3 sites (n = 8) in the high-dose group. RESULTS: LV mean dose (13.2 ± 1.8 Gy vs 4.6 ± 1.8 Gy) and the volume receiving at least 20 Gy (V20Gy) (24.7% ± 4.8% vs 6.4% ± 3.0%) differed significantly between groups. Dose-dependent effects on left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and LV end-diastolic volume became manifest about 3 months after treatment. LVEF decline was correlated to mean dose (correlation coefficient ρ = -0.69; P = .008) and V20Gy (ρ = -0.66; P = .01), as was LV dilation (ρ = 0.72; P = .005; and ρ = 0.75, P = .003 respectively). CONCLUSION: Possible adverse effects on LV function, seen about 3 months after treatment, are dose dependent. Therefore, precise target definition and focused energy delivery are paramount in catheter-free ablation.

Lesion modeling, characterization, and visualization for image-guided cardiac ablation therapy monitoring.

In spite of significant efforts to improve image-guided ablation therapy, a large number of patients undergoing ablation therapy to treat cardiac arrhythmic conditions require repeat procedures. The delivery of insufficient thermal dose is a significant contributor to incomplete tissue ablation, in turn leading to the arrhythmia recurrence. Ongoing research efforts aim to better characterize and visualize RF delivery to monitor the induced tissue damage during therapy. Here, we propose a method that entails modeling and visualization of the lesions in real-time. The described image-based ablation model relies on classical heat transfer principles to estimate tissue temperature in response to the ablation parameters, tissue properties, and duration. The ablation lesion quality, geometry, and overall progression are quantified on a voxel-by-voxel basis according to each voxel's cumulative temperature and time exposure. The model was evaluated both numerically under different parameter conditions, as well as experimentally, using ex vivo bovine tissue samples undergoing ex vivo clinically relevant ablation protocols. The studies demonstrated less than 5°C difference between the model-predicted and experimentally measured end-ablation temperatures. The model predicted lesion patterns were within 0.5 to 1 mm from the observed lesion patterns, suggesting sufficiently accurate modeling of the ablation lesions. Lastly, our proposed method enables therapy delivery feedback with no significant workflow latency. This study suggests that the proposed technique provides reasonably accurate and sufficiently fast visualizations of the delivered ablation lesions.

Technical Note: On Cardiac Ablation Lesion Visualization for Image-guided Therapy Monitoring.

The delivery of insufficient thermal dose is a significant contributor to incomplete tissue ablation and leads to arrhythmia recurrence and a large number of patients requiring repeat procedures. In concert with ongoing research efforts aimed at better characterizing the RF energy delivery, here we propose a method that entails modeling and visualization of the lesions in real time. The described image-based ablation model relies on classical heat transfer principles to estimate tissue temperature in response to the ablation parameters, tissue properties, and duration. The ablation lesion quality, geometry, and overall progression is quantified on a voxel-by-voxel basis according to each voxel's cumulative temperature and time exposure. The model was evaluated both numerically under different parameter conditions, as well as experimentally, using ex vivo bovine tissue samples. This study suggests that the proposed technique provides reasonably accurate and sufficiently fast visualizations of the delivered ablation lesions.

Simulated evaluation of an intraoperative surface modeling method for catheter ablation by a real phantom simulation experiment.

In this work, we propose a phantom experiment method to quantitatively evaluate an intraoperative left-atrial modeling update method. In prior work, we proposed an update procedure which updates the preoperative surface model with information from real-time tracked 2D ultrasound. Prior studies did not evaluate the reconstruction using an anthropomorphic phantom. In this approach, a silicone heart phantom (based on a high resolution human atrial surface model reconstructed from CT images) was made as simulated atriums. A surface model of the left atrium of the phantom was deformed by a morphological operation - simulating the shape difference caused by organ deformation between pre-operative scanning and intra-operative guidance. During the simulated procedure, a tracked ultrasound catheter was inserted into right atrial phantom - scanning the left atrial phantom in a manner mimicking the cardiac ablation procedure. By merging the preoperative model and the intraoperative ultrasound images, an intraoperative left atrial model was reconstructed. According to results, the reconstruction error of the modeling method is smaller than the initial geometric difference caused by organ deformation. As the area of the left atrial phantom scanned by ultrasound increases, the reconstruction error of the intraoperative surface model decreases. The study validated the efficacy of the modeling method.

The effect of elastic modulus on ablation catheter contact area.

Cardiac ablation consists of navigating a catheter into the heart and delivering RF energy to electrically isolate tissue regions that generate or propagate arrhythmia. Besides the challenges of accurate and precise targeting of the arrhythmic sites within the beating heart, limited information is currently available to the cardiologist regarding intricate electrode-tissue contact, which directly impacts the quality of produced lesions. Recent advances in ablation catheter design provide intra-procedural estimates of tissue-catheter contact force, but the most direct indicator of lesion quality for any particular energy level and duration is the tissue-catheter contact area, and that is a function of not only force, but catheter pose and material elasticity as well. In this experiment, we have employed real-time ultrasound (US) imaging to determine the complete interaction between the ablation electrode and tissue to accurately estimate contact, which will help to better understand the effect of catheter pose and position relative to the tissue. By simultaneously recording tracked position, force reading and US image of the ablation catheter, the differing material properties of polyvinyl alcohol cryogel[1] phantoms are shown to produce varying amounts of tissue depression and contact area (implying varying lesion quality) for equivalent force readings. We have shown that the elastic modulus significantly affects the surface-contact area between the catheter and tissue at any level of contact force. Thus we provide evidence that a prescribed level of catheter force may not always provide sufficient contact area to produce an effective ablation lesion in the prescribed ablation time.

Measurements of the left atrium and pulmonary veins for analysis of reverse structural remodeling following cardiac ablation therapy.

RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES: Geometric analysis of the left atrium and pulmonary veins is important for assessing reverse structural remodeling following cardiac ablation therapy. Most volumetric analysis techniques, however, require laborious manual tracing of image cross-sections. Pulmonary vein diameters are typically measured at the junction between the left atrium and pulmonary veins, called the pulmonary vein ostia, with manually drawn lines on volume renderings or in image slices. In this work, we describe a technique for making semi-automatic measurements of left atrial volume and pulmonary vein diameters from high resolution CT scans and demonstrate its use for analyzing reverse structural remodeling following cardiac ablation therapy. METHODS: The left atrium and pulmonary veins are segmented from high-resolution computed tomography (CT) volumes using a 3D volumetric approach and cut planes are interactively positioned to separate the pulmonary veins from the body of the left atrium. Left atrial volume and pulmonary vein ostial diameters are then automatically computed from the segmented structures. Validation experiments are conducted to evaluate accuracy and repeatability of the measurements. Accuracy is assessed by comparing left atrial volumes computed with the proposed methodology to a manual slice-by-slice tracing approach. Repeatability is assessed by making repeated volume and diameter measurements on duplicated and randomized datasets. The proposed techniques were then utilized in a study of 21 patients from the Catheter Ablation versus Antiarrhythmic Drug Therapy for Atrial Fibrillation Trial (CABANA) pilot study who were scanned both before and approximately 3 months following ablation therapy. RESULTS: In the high resolution CT scans the left atrial volume measurements show high accuracy with a mean absolute difference of 2.3±1.9 cm(3) between volumes computed with the proposed methodology and a manual slice-by-slice tracing approach. In the intra-rater repeatability study, the mean absolute difference in left atrial volume was 4.7±2.5 cm(3) and 4.4±3.4 cm(3) for the two raters. Intra-rater repeatability for pulmonary vein diameters ranged from 0.9 to 2.3 mm. The inter-rater repeatability for left atrial volume was 5.8±5.1 cm(3) and inter-rater repeatability for pulmonary vein diameter measurements ranged from 1.4 to 2.3 mm. In the patient study, significant (p<.05) decreases in left atrial volume and all four pulmonary vein diameters were observed. The absolute change in LA volume was 20.0 cm(3), 95%CI [12.6, 27.5]. The left inferior pulmonary vein diameter decreased 2.1 mm, 95%CI [0.4, 3.7], the left superior pulmonary vein diameter decreased 3.2 mm, 95%CI [1.0, 5.4], the right inferior pulmonary vein diameter decreased 1.5 mm, 95%CI [0.3, 2.7], and the right superior pulmonary vein diameter decreased 2.8 mm, 95%CI [1.4, 4.3]. CONCLUSIONS: Using the proposed techniques, we demonstrate high accuracy of left atrial volume measurements as well as high repeatability for left atrial volume and pulmonary vein diameter measurements. Following cardiac ablation therapy, a significant decrease was observed for left atrial volume as well as all four pulmonary vein diameters.

Anatomic surface reconstruction from sampled point cloud data and prior models.

In this paper, we propose an approach for reconstruction of an anatomic surface model from point cloud data using the Screened Poisson Surface Reconstruction algorithm, which requires a collection of points and their normal vectors. Various algorithms exist for estimating normal vectors for point cloud data; however, in this work we describe a novel approach to estimating the normal vectors from a high-resolution prior model. In many medical applications, a preoperative high-resolution scan is acquired for diagnostic and planning purposes, whereas intraoperative, lower fidelity imaging is utilized during the procedure. This approach assumes an already existing registration between intra-operatively acquired data and the preoperative model. We conducted simulation experiments to evaluate the effect of registration error, point sampling rate, and noise levels on the acquired point cloud data samples. In addition, we evaluated the effect of using both the closest point, as well as a neighborhood of closest points on the prior model for estimating the normal. Our results showed that surface reconstruction error increases with higher registration error; however, acceptable performance was achieved with clinically-acceptable registration error. In addition, the best reconstruction was obtained when estimating the normal using only the closest point on the prior model, as opposed to utilizing a neighborhood of points. When combining the effect of all factors (Gaussian sampling noise of zero mean and σ=1.8mm; Gaussian translational error of zero mean and σ=2.0mm; and Gaussian rotational error of zero mean and σ=3°) the overall RMS reconstruction error was 0.88±0.03mm.

Quantitative modeling of the accuracy in registering preoperative patient-specific anatomic models into left atrial cardiac ablation procedures.

PURPOSE: In cardiac ablation therapy, accurate anatomic guidance is necessary to create effective tissue lesions for elimination of left atrial fibrillation. While fluoroscopy, ultrasound, and electroanatomic maps are important guidance tools, they lack information regarding detailed patient anatomy which can be obtained from high resolution imaging techniques. For this reason, there has been significant effort in incorporating detailed, patient-specific models generated from preoperative imaging datasets into the procedure. Both clinical and animal studies have investigated registration and targeting accuracy when using preoperative models; however, the effect of various error sources on registration accuracy has not been quantitatively evaluated. METHODS: Data from phantom, canine, and patient studies are used to model and evaluate registration accuracy. In the phantom studies, data are collected using a magnetically tracked catheter on a static phantom model. Monte Carlo simulation studies were run to evaluate both baseline errors as well as the effect of different sources of error that would be present in a dynamic in vivo setting. Error is simulated by varying the variance parameters on the landmark fiducial, physical target, and surface point locations in the phantom simulation studies. In vivo validation studies were undertaken in six canines in which metal clips were placed in the left atrium to serve as ground truth points. A small clinical evaluation was completed in three patients. Landmark-based and combined landmark and surface-based registration algorithms were evaluated in all studies. In the phantom and canine studies, both target registration error and point-to-surface error are used to assess accuracy. In the patient studies, no ground truth is available and registration accuracy is quantified using point-to-surface error only. RESULTS: The phantom simulation studies demonstrated that combined landmark and surface-based registration improved landmark-only registration provided the noise in the surface points is not excessively high. Increased variability on the landmark fiducials resulted in increased registration errors; however, refinement of the initial landmark registration by the surface-based algorithm can compensate for small initial misalignments. The surface-based registration algorithm is quite robust to noise on the surface points and continues to improve landmark registration even at high levels of noise on the surface points. Both the canine and patient studies also demonstrate that combined landmark and surface registration has lower errors than landmark registration alone. CONCLUSIONS: In this work, we describe a model for evaluating the impact of noise variability on the input parameters of a registration algorithm in the context of cardiac ablation therapy. The model can be used to predict both registration error as well as assess which inputs have the largest effect on registration accuracy.

Toward modeling of radio-frequency ablation lesions for image-guided left atrial fibrillation therapy: model formulation and preliminary evaluation.

In the context of image-guided left atrial fibrillation therapy, relatively very little work has been done to consider the changes that occur in the tissue during ablation in order to monitor therapy delivery. Here we describe a technique to predict the lesion progression and monitor the radio-frequency energy delivery via a thermal ablation model that uses heat transfer principles to estimate the tissue temperature distribution and resulting lesion. A preliminary evaluation of the model was conducted in ex vivo skeletal beef muscle tissue while emulating a clinically relevant tissue ablation protocol. The predicted temperature distribution within the tissue was assessed against that measured directly using fiberoptic temperature probes and showed agreement within 5°C between the model-predicted and experimentally measured tissue temperatures at prescribed locations. We believe this technique is capable of providing reasonably accurate representations of the tissue response to radio-frequency energy delivery.

Image-based Modeling and Characterization of RF Ablation Lesions in Cardiac Arrhythmia Therapy.

In spite of significant efforts to enhance guidance for catheter navigation, limited research has been conducted to consider the changes that occur in the tissue during ablation as means to provide useful feedback on the progression of therapy delivery. We propose a technique to visualize lesion progression and monitor the effects of the RF energy delivery using a surrogate thermal ablation model. The model incorporates both physical and physiological tissue parameters, and uses heat transfer principles to estimate temperature distribution in the tissue and geometry of the generated lesion in near real time. The ablation model has been calibrated and evaluated using ex vivo beef muscle tissue in a clinically relevant ablation protocol. To validate the model, the predicted temperature distribution was assessed against that measured directly using fiberoptic temperature probes inserted in the tissue. Moreover, the model-predicted lesions were compared to the lesions observed in the post-ablation digital images. Results showed an agreement within 5°C between the model-predicted and experimentally measured tissue temperatures, as well as comparable predicted and observed lesion characteristics and geometry. These results suggest that the proposed technique is capable of providing reasonably accurate and sufficiently fast representations of the created RF ablation lesions, to generate lesion maps in near real time. These maps can be used to guide the placement of successive lesions to ensure continuous and enduring suppression of the arrhythmic pathway.