Antimicrobial Activity Developed by Scorpion Venoms and Its Peptide Component.

Microbial infections represent a problem of great importance at the public health level, with a high rate of morbidity-mortality worldwide. However, treating the different diseases generated by microorganisms requires a gradual increase in acquired resistance when applying or using them against various antibiotic therapies. Resistance is caused by various molecular mechanisms of microorganisms, thus reducing their effectiveness. Consequently, there is a need to search for new opportunities through natural sources with antimicrobial activity. One alternative is using peptides present in different scorpion venoms, specifically from the Buthidae family. Different peptides with biological activity in microorganisms have been characterized as preventing their growth or inhibiting their replication. Therefore, they represent an alternative to be used in the design and development of new-generation antimicrobial drugs in different types of microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites. Essential aspects for its disclosure, as shown in this review, are the studies carried out on different types of peptides in scorpion venoms with activity against pathogenic microorganisms, highlighting their high therapeutic potential.

Structural and functional characterization of toxic peptides purified from the venom of the Colombian scorpion Tityus macrochirus.

The soluble venom of the scorpion Tityus macrochirus was separated by chromatographic procedures and three homogeneous peptides were obtained and their primary structures were determined. They were called: Tma1-Tma3, from the abbreviated name of the scorpion. Tma1 is a peptide containing 65 amino acids with four disulfide linkages and a molecular weight of 7386.2 Da. It is a mammalian toxin, shown to affect human sodium-channels sub-types hNav1.6 and hNav1.4. Tma2 and Tma3 are peptides containing 69 amino acids linked by four disulfide bonds, molecular weights 7819.7 and 7830.0 Da, respectively. They do not affect human sodium-channels but are lethal to insects (crickets). A phylogenic analysis of the three peptides and those of other toxic peptides isolated from the genus Tityus and Centruroides were grouped together and analyzed, permitting to obtain a topology with two main clades, one includes most sodium-channel anti-insect scorpion toxins and others includes mostly sodium-channel scorpion toxins anti-mammalian. Tma1 segregates among a group of well-studied ß-class toxins of other Tityus species such as T. discrepans, T. obscurus and T. pachyurus. Tma2 and Tma3 are associated with anti-insect toxins, particularly with one of T. obscurus. This phylogenetic analysis confirms and enforces our experimental results obtained with these three new sodium-channel scorpion toxins.

Evaluación preliminar de actividad antibacteriana in vitro del veneno de escorpión Hadruroides charcasus (Karsch, 1879) contra Pseudomonas aeruginosa y Staphylococcus aureus / Preliminary evaluation of the in vitro antibacterial activity of the scorpion venom Hadruroides charcasus (Karsch, 1879) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus

Objetivo: Evaluar la actividad antibacteriana in vitro veneno de Hadruroides charcasus contra a Pseudomonas aeruginosa y Staphylococcus aureus. Material y métodos. Por estimulación eléctrica se obtuvo el veneno del escorpión H. charcasus y posteriormente fue cuantificado por el método de relación de absorbancias, [mg/mL]=(1,56 x Abs 280nm) ­ (0,76 x Abs 260nm). Se realizó electroforesis, en condiciones desnaturantes (PAGE-SDS),usando un gel del 10 % y 12 % de entrecruzamiento. A través del sistema Amicon® Ultra ­ 0.5, se hizo laconcentración de las fracciones de proteínas y péptidos. Para evaluar la actividad antibacteriana se empleó cepasde P. aeruginosa y S. aureus, se hizo el método de microdilución en microplaca de 96 pozos para determinar laconcentración mínima inhibitoria (CMI). Resultados. La fracción soluble del veneno total presentó unaconcentración de 2,26 mg/mL y por PAGE-SDS, se observaron bandas con un rango peso molecular entre 7,0 ­ 9,1kDa. Se obtuvo una CMI de 0,07 mg/mL y de 0,565 mg/mL para P. aeruginosa y S. aureus una CMI de 0,035 mg/mLConclusión. el veneno del escorpión H. charcasus mostró actividad antibacteriana, con una concentración mínimainhibitoria diferente para cepas tanto S. aureus como para P. aeruginosa.

Objetive: To evaluate the in vitro antibacterial activity of Hadruroides charcasus venom against Pseudomonasaeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Material andmethods. The venom of the scorpion H. charcasus wasobtained by electrical stimulation and subsequently it was quantified by the absorbance ratio method, [mg /mL] = (1.56 x Abs 280nm) - (0.76 x Abs 260nm).Electrophoresis was performed under denaturingconditions (PAGE-SDS), using a 10% gel and 12% crosslinking. Through the Amicon® Ultra-0.5 system,the concentration of protein and peptide fractions was made. To evaluate the antibacterial activity, strains of P. aeruginosa and S. aureus were used; the microdilution method was carried out in a 96-well microplate to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Results The soluble fraction of the total venom showed a concentration of 2,26 mg/mL and by PAGESDS, bands with a molecular weight range between 7.0- 9.1 kDa were observed. An MIC of 0,07 mg / mL and 0,565 mg / mL for P. aeruginosa and S. aureus was obtained with a MIC of 0,035 mg/mL. Conclusion. The scorpion venom H. charcasus showed antibacterial activity, with a different minimum inhibitory concentration for both S. aureus and P. aeruginosa strains.

Purificación parcial de péptidos presentes en el veneno del escorpión Tityus macrochirus (Buthidae) y evaluación preliminar de su actividad citotóxica / Partial purification of peptides present in the Tityus macrochirus (Buthidae) scorpion venom and preliminary assessment of their cytotoxicity

RESUMEN Introducción. El veneno del escorpión posee péptidos con actividad neurotóxica que actúan principalmente en los canales iónicos del sistema nervioso de insectos y mamíferos. También se ha establecido su acción citolítica y anticancerígena, características biológicas que aún no se han explorado en el veneno del escorpión Tityus macrochirus. Objetivo. Evaluar si tanto el veneno total de T. macrochirus como la fracción de péptidos parcialmente purificados disminuyen el porcentaje de viabilidad de diferentes líneas celulares provenientes de tumores. Materiales y métodos. Mediante métodos cromatográficos, electroforéticos y de ultrafiltración con membranas de Amicon Ultra 0.5®, se identificaron y purificaron parcialmente los péptidos del veneno de T. macrochirus obtenido mediante estimulación eléctrica. Los ensayos de actividad citotóxica del veneno y de la fracción de péptidos se hicieron en líneas celulares provenientes de tumores con el método colorimétrico de reducción de la sal de tetrazolio (Mossman's Tetrazole Test, MTT). Resultados. El veneno de T. macrochirus posee péptidos con pesos moleculares entre 3 y 10 kDa, los cuales se purificaron parcialmente mediante ultrafiltración y se evaluaron mediante cromatografía líquida de alta resolución en fase inversa (Reverse Phase-High Pressure Liquid Chromatography, RP-HPLC). Los ensayos de citotoxicidad del veneno total de T. macrochirus evidenciaron una mayor disminución de la viabilidad en la línea celular PC3 que en las demás líneas celulares evaluadas, en tanto que la fracción parcialmente purificada de péptidos logró disminuir la viabilidad de la línea celular HeLa. Conclusión. Los péptidos del veneno de T. macrochirus presentaron actividad citotóxica en algunas de las líneas celulares provenientes de tumores, y se observó algún grado de selectividad frente a ellas.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Scorpion venom contains peptides with neurotoxic action primarily active on ion channels in the nervous system of insects and mammals. They are also characterized as cytolytic and anticancer, biological characteristics that have not yet been reported for the Tityus macrochirus venom. Objective: To assess if the total T. macrochirus venom and the fraction of partially purified peptides decrease the viability of various tumor-derived cell lines. Materials and methods: The scorpion venom was collected by electrical stimulation and, subsequently, subjected to chromatography, electrophoresis, and ultrafiltration with Amicon Ultra 0.5® membranes for the partial identification and purification of its peptides. The cytotoxic activity of the venom and the peptides fraction trials on tumor-derived cell lines were carried out by the MTT method. Results: The T. macrochirus scorpion venom has peptides with molecular weights ranging between 3 and 10 kDa. They were partially purified using the ultrafiltration technique, and assessed by the RP-HPLC method. Cytotoxicity trials with the whole T. macrochirus venom showed a higher viability decrease on the PC3 cell line compared to the other cell lines assessed, while the partially purified peptides decreased the HeLa cell line viability. Conclusion: Peptides in the T. macrochirus scorpion venom showed cytotoxic activity on some tumor-derived cell lines. We observed some degree of selectivity against other cell lines assessed.

[Partial purification of peptides present in the Tityus macrochirus (Buthidae) scorpion venom and preliminary assessment of their cytotoxicity].

INTRODUCTION: Scorpion venom contains peptides with neurotoxic action primarily active on ion channels in the nervous system of insects and mammals. They are also characterized as cytolytic and anticancer, biological characteristics that have not yet been reported for the Tityus macrochirus venom. OBJECTIVE: To assess if the total T. macrochirus venom and the fraction of partially purified peptides decrease the viability of various tumor-derived cell lines. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The scorpion venom was collected by electrical stimulation and, subsequently, subjected to chromatography, electrophoresis, and ultrafiltration with Amicon Ultra 0.5® membranes for the partial identification and purification of its peptides. The cytotoxic activity of the venom and the peptides fraction trials on tumor-derived cell lines were carried out by the MTT method. RESULTS: The T. macrochirus scorpion venom has peptides with molecular weights ranging between 3 and 10 kDa. They were partially purified using the ultrafiltration technique, and assessed by the RP-HPLC method. Cytotoxicity trials with the whole T. macrochirus venom showed a higher viability decrease on the PC3 cell line compared to the other cell lines assessed, while the partially purified peptides decreased the HeLa cell line viability. CONCLUSION: Peptides in the T. macrochirus scorpion venom showed cytotoxic activity on some tumorderived cell lines. We observed some degree of selectivity against other cell lines assessed.

Computational analysis and low-scale constitutive expression of laccases synthetic genes GlLCC1 from Ganoderma lucidum and POXA 1B from Pleurotus ostreatus in Pichia pastoris.

Lacasses are multicopper oxidases that can catalyze aromatic and non-aromatic compounds concomitantly with reduction of molecular oxygen to water. Fungal laccases have generated a growing interest due to their biotechnological potential applications, such as lignocellulosic material delignification, biopulping and biobleaching, wastewater treatment, and transformation of toxic organic pollutants. In this work we selected fungal genes encoding for laccase enzymes GlLCC1 in Ganoderma lucidum and POXA 1B in Pleurotus ostreatus. These genes were optimized for codon use, GC content, and regions generating secondary structures. Laccase proposed computational models, and their interaction with ABTS [2, 2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)] substrate was evaluated by molecular docking. Synthetic genes were cloned under the control of Pichia pastoris glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAP) constitutive promoter. P. pastoris X-33 was transformed with pGAPZαA-LaccGluc-Stop and pGAPZαA-LaccPost-Stop constructs. Optimization reduced GC content by 47 and 49% for LaccGluc-Stop and LaccPost-Stop genes, respectively. A codon adaptation index of 0.84 was obtained for both genes. 3D structure analysis using SuperPose revealed LaccGluc-Stop is similar to the laccase crystallographic structure 1GYC of Trametes versicolor. Interaction analysis of the 3D models validated through ABTS, demonstrated higher substrate affinity for LaccPost-Stop, in agreement with our experimental results with enzymatic activities of 451.08 ± 6.46 UL-1 compared to activities of 0.13 ± 0.028 UL-1 for LaccGluc-Stop. This study demonstrated that G. lucidum GlLCC1 and P. ostreatus POXA 1B gene optimization resulted in constitutive gene expression under GAP promoter and α-factor leader in P. pastoris. These are important findings in light of recombinant enzyme expression system utility for environmentally friendly designed expression systems, because of the wide range of substrates that laccases can transform. This contributes to a great gamut of products in diverse settings: industry, clinical and chemical use, and environmental applications.

Estudio computacional de las relaciones evolutivas de los receptores ionotrópicos NMDA, AMPA y kainato en cuatro especies de primates / Computational study of the evolutionary relationships of the ionotropic receptors NMDA, AMPA and kainate in four species of primates / Estudo computacional das relações evolutivas dos receptores ionotrópicos NMDA, AMPA e cainato em quatro espécies de primatas

Objetivo. Identificar la influencia de los cambios respecto a la estructura secundaria y a la relación evolutiva de los receptores NMDA, AMPA Y KAINATO en las especies Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus, y Macaca mulata. Materiales y métodos. Se recopilaron 91 secuencias correspondientes a los receptores NMDA, AMPA y Kainato y se sometieron a los programas de predicción de estructura secundaria, sitios de fosforilación, alineamientos múltiples, selección del modelo de evolución y predicción filogenética. Resultados. Se encontró que las subunidades GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C y NR3A presentaron cambios de estructura en la región C-terminal y aparición o pérdida de sitios de fosforilación en esta zona. Adicionalmente la predicción filogenética nos propone que las subunidades NR2 de NMDA son las más cercanas al nodo ancestral que da origen a los demás subunidades. Conclusiones. Los cambios de estructura y sitios de fosforilación en las subunidades GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C y NR3A nos sugieren variaciones en la interacción de la región C-terminal con proteínas quinasas y con proteínas con dominios PDZ lo cual podría afectar el tráfico y anclaje de las subunidades. Por otra parte la predicción filogenética nos propone que los cambios que se presentaron en las subunidades NR2 dieron origen a las demás subunidades de los receptores ionotrópicos de glutamato, básicamente porque son las subunidades de NMDA y en particular NR2D las que se encuentran más estrechamente relacionadas con el nodo ancestral que posiblemente dio origen a los iGluRs.

Objective. To identify the influence of changes on the secondary structure and evolutionary relationship of NMDA, AMPA and kainate receptors in Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus and Macaca mulatta. Materials and methods. We identified 91 sequences for NMDA, AMPA and kainate receptors and analyzed with software for predicting secondary structure, phosphorylation sites, multiple alignments, selection of protein evolution models and phylogenetic prediction. Results. We found that subunits GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C and NR3A showed structural changes in the C-terminal region and formation or loss of phosphorylation sites in this zone. Additionally the phylogenetic prediction suggests that the NMDA NR2 subunits are the closest to the ancestral node that gives rise to the other subunits. Conclusions. Changes in structure and phosphorylation sites in GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C and NR3A subunits suggest variations in the interaction of the C-terminal region with kinase proteins and with proteins with PDZ domains, which could affect the trafficking and anchoring of the subunits. On the other hand, the phylogenetic prediction suggests that the changes that occurred in the NR2 subunits gave rise to the other subunits of glutamate ionotropic receptors, primarily because the NMDA and particularly the NR2D subunits are the most closely related to the ancestral node that possibly gave rise to the iGluRs.

Objetivo. Identificar a influência das mudanças da estrutura secundária e da relação evolutiva dos receptores NMDA, AMPA e cainato nas espécies Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus e Macaca mulatta. Materiais e métodos. Foram recopiladas 91 seqüências correspondentes aos receptores NMDA, AMPA e cainato e foram submetidos a programas de predição de estrutura secundária, sítios de fosforilação, alinhamentos múltiplos, seleção do modelo de evolução e predição da filogenia. Resultados. Descobrimos que as subunidades GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C e NR3A apresentaram alterações estruturais na região C-terminal e aparecimento ou perda de sítios de fosforilação nesta área. Além disso, a predição filogenética sugere ainda que as subunidades NR2 de NMDA são as mais próximas ao nó ancestral que dá origem às demais subunidades. Conclusões. As mudanças na estrutura e nos sítios de fosforilação nas subunidades GLUR5, NR2A, NR2C e NR3A sugerem variações na interação da região C-terminal com proteínas quinase e com proteínas de domínios PDZ que poderia afetar o tráfego e fixação das subunidades. Além disso, a predição filogenética sugere que as mudanças ocorridas nas subunidades NR2 deram origem às outras subunidades de receptores ionotrópicos de glutamato, principalmente porque são subunidade NMDA e particularmente NR2D aquelas que são mais estreitamente relacionadas com o nó ancestral que provavelmente deu origem aos iGluRs.

Immunolocalization and biochemical characterization of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunit NR1 from rat brain.

The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunit NR1 gene can produce eight isoforms in rat brain. A novel methodology for purifying NMDA receptor NR1 subunit from rat brain is reported here using chicken polyclonal antibodies (IgYs) against synthetic peptides corresponding to N1, C1 and C2' cassettes. The isolated protein was recognized by produced IgYs and commercial anti-NR1 IgGs, shown by MALDI-TOF MS a MW = 131,192 Da (glycosylated form); the enzymatically deglycosylated protein revealed a MW = 102,754 Da. The NMDA receptor NR1 subunit was characterized as being a heavily N-glycosylated protein. The isoelectric point was determined (6.3) as being different from that predicted for any of the isoforms (7.9-9.02). Attempts to separate the isoforms from the purified NR1 were unsuccessful, indicating the presence of just one isoform (NR1(111)). Immunohistochemistry on hippocampus regions CA1, CA3 and Dentate gyrus with anti-N1, anti-N2 and anti-C2' IgYs showed different staining intensity, depending upon the antibody assayed.