Prenatal nicotine exposure alters respiratory long-term facilitation in neonatal rats.

Intermittent hypoxia can evoke persistent increases in ventilation (V (E)) in neonates (i.e. long-term facilitation, LTF) (Julien et al., 2008). Since prenatal nicotine (PN) exposure alters neonatal respiratory control (Fregosi and Pilarski, 2008), we hypothesized that PN would influence LTF of ventilation (V (E)) in neonatal rats. An osmotic minipump delivered nicotine 6 mg/kg per day or saline to pregnant dams. V (E) was assessed in unanesthetized pups via whole body plethysmography at post-natal (P) days 9-11 or 15-17 during baseline (BL, 21% O(2)), hypoxia (10 x 5 min, 5% O(2)) and 30 min post-hypoxia. PN pups had reduced BL V (E) (p<0.05) but greater increases in V (E) during hypoxia (p<0.05). Post-hypoxia V (E) (i.e. LTF) showed an agex treatment interaction (p<0.01) with similar values at P9-11 but enhanced LTF in saline (30+/-8%BL) vs. PN pups (6+/-5%BL; p=0.01) at P15-17. We conclude that the post-natal developmental time course of hypoxia-induced LTF is influenced by PN.

Disinhibition of the dorsomedial hypothalamus increases the frequency of augmented breaths in the anesthetized rat.

The present study was undertaken to identify if activation of the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH) elicits augmented breaths (ABs). DMH disinhibition in urethane anesthetized rats produced both an increase in baseline respiratory rate (RR) and an increase in the number of ABs. The increase in RR was associated with a decrease in both the time of inspiration (T(i)) and expiration (T(e)) and the peak change in RR was observed 5 min post DMH activation. In contrast, the increase in ABs was greatest during the first 1.25 min, and both T(i)s of the ABs did not change significantly from pre-injection values. The T(e) of the ABs did decrease but remained significantly greater than the T(e) of the normal breath during DMH disinhibition. Our results support the hypothesis that the central neural pathway involved in the maintenance of normal respiratory pattern may be distinct from pathways involved in the generation of ABs.

Effects of stimulants on the continuous performance test (CPT): implications for CPT use and interpretation.

An increasing number of treatment plans for individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), as well as other disorders, include stimulant medication. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of stimulant medications on attention and impulsivity as measured by continuous performance tests (CPTs). The effect of other stimulants (e.g., caffeine, nicotine) on CPT performance was examined as well. Although various versions of the CPT were used in the studies reviewed, the research supports improvements in CPT performance with stimulant treatment. Implications for the use of CPTs in evaluating the effects of medications on attention are discussed. Also presented are implications for control of common substances like nicotine or caffeine when CPT is used and interpreted as a measure of attention.

Continuous performance tests are sensitive to ADHD in adults but lack specificity. A review and critique for differential diagnosis.

Historically, the focus for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has been on children, with considerable research and many opinions available in this area. More recently, the focus has been expanded to include ADHD in adults. Assessment of ADHD in adults is complicated by the high rate of co-occurring disorders as well as symptom overlap with a number of disorders. One popular family of measures for the assessment of attention and executive control is the continuous performance test (CPT). A review of the available research on CPTs reveals that they are quite sensitive to CNS dysfunction. This is both a strength and a limitation of CPTs in that multiple disorders can result in impaired performance on a CPT. The high sensitivity of CPTs is further complicated by the multiple variations of CPTs available, some of which may be more sensitive or demonstrate better specificity to ADHD in adults than others. If CPTs are to be used clinically, further research will be needed to answer the questions raised by this review.

Does smoking by pregnant women influence IQ, birth weight, and developmental disabilities in their infants? A methodological review and multivariate analysis.

Neuropsychologists are asked frequently to address the issue of the cause of a variety of central nervous system problems that may affect higher cortical function. One such issue is the relationship of maternal smoking to adverse reproductive outcomes involving neocortical insult including mental retardation, learning disabilities, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and other insults that may be related to prolonged hypoxic states in utero. The instant paper develops the issue of causation as a scientific inquiry, reviews several traditional, applicable models, and critiques these models. An additional model of motility is proposed and discussed. The issue of the relationship of maternal smoking to adverse reproductive outcomes is then addressed from a review perspective along with new empirical analyses, the latter demonstrating that researchers tend to draw causal conclusions independent of whether the respective design of their studies would support conclusions about the causation of an event. Causal conclusions in the absence of causal designs have often lead to incomplete and incorrect conclusions. It is necessary to match conclusions not only to the outcomes of a research project but also to its design and accompanying limitations.

A typology of parent rated child behavior for a national U.S. sample.

The purpose of the current study was to build on the emerging effort to produce a meaningful typology of child behavior for school-aged children. The Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) Parent Rating Scales for Children (PRS-C) norming data were collected for 2029 6- to 11-year-old children at 116 sites representing various regions of the United States. The PRS-C has 130 items that are rated by the parent on a 4-point scale of frequency, ranging from "never" to "almost always". The Ward method of cluster analysis was used to identify the initial centroids or cluster seeds in this norming sample. An iterative clustering method, a K-means procedure, was used to refine the Ward cluster solution. A nine-cluster solution was selected based on both rational and empirical considerations. The resulting clusters were labeled adapted, physical complaints/worry, average, well-adapted, minimal problems, attention problems, internalizing, general psychopathology-severe, and disruptive behavior problems. The nine-cluster solution is similar to those of Achenbach (1991), Thompson, Kronenberger, and Curry (1989), and other researchers. At the same time, some significant differences exist. The resulting typology points the way toward future cluster studies of child psychopathology and normal behavioral development by delineating additional research and theoretical directions.

Inferring causality from relational data and designs: historical and contemporary lessons for research and clinical practice.

My address to you today is born of frustration with the growing claims, evident in the research literature and in clinical reports that happen to cross my desk, of causation made on the basis of correlational data. I recall, as a sophomore in college, being taught early in my first experimental psychology course, "you cannot infer causality from correlation." This point was made adamant in my first face-to-face critique of an experimental psychology research paper by Dr. Robert T. Brown, who pointed out, in lowering my grade, that I had inferred organic causes to behavior patterns in gerbils based solely on correlational data. This caution was reiterated in my statistics courses until it must have been indelibly stamped upon my then still somewhat plastic brain.

Age, gender, and education may have little influence on error patterns in the assessment of set-shifting and rule induction among normal elderly.

Error patterns have been found to be sensitive to cognitive status, but the relationship between aging and error patterns remains unclear, and may differ as a function of gender, education, and whether a task is verbal or nonverbal. The present study examined the error patterns of normal elderly individuals on a verbal measure of set-shifting and rule induction to determine whether demographic variables, that is, age, gender, and education, influenced test performance. The sample of 109 individuals, 38 males and 71 females, ranging in age from 54 to 89 years with 6 to 19 years of education, was assessed on the Classification subtest of the Test of Verbal Conceptualization and Fluency, a verbal measure of set-shifting and rule induction. Subjects' protocols were scored for perseverative, nonperseverative, and random errors, tabulated, and analyzed. Multivariate analysis of covariance with education as the covariate as well as other statistical tests revealed nonsignificant relationships between error scores and age, gender, and education. Years of education, however, showed a significant correlation with a reduction in random responses. Results are interpreted based on Horn's (1978) fluid-crystallized explanations of changes in intelligence with advancing age.

Continuing decline of memory skills with significant recovery of intellectual function following severe carbon monoxide exposure: clinical, psychometric, and neuroimaging findings.

Extensive clinical, psychometric, and neuroimaging data are presented and interpreted with regard to a 35-year-old, White male college graduate who was exposed to severe carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. The patient was comatose for 21 days following the exposure. Several other people, who were in the same room as the patient, died due to the toxic effects of the CO. The patient was employed premorbidly as a systems level lead computer programmer. The patient received medical and neuropsychological follow-up for 3 years post-CO exposure. Neuropsychological evaluations revealed a gradual, but incomplete recovery of general intellectual function. The patient continued to exhibit severe memory deficits with some evidence for small additional memory decline over time. Characteristic and permanent vestibular and gait disturbances were also noted, along with a variety of neuropsychological deficits that improved over time with the exception of memory function. The patient also experienced significant affective and personality changes. Neuroimaging studies reveal a generalized cortical atrophy as shown by significantly enlarged ventricles and a ventricle-to-brain ratio that exceeded 4 standard deviations above the norm. The observed atrophic changes are consistent with CO-induced anoxic type injury, which was also accompanied by bilateral lesions of the globus pallidus, caudate, and hippocampus. Despite obtaining average levels of general intellectual functioning over time, significant memory impairments, depression, and personality disturbances severely impaired the patients' vocational recovery and ability to return to work.

Need we measure anxiety differently for males and females?

Using 2 separate large samples of children (N1 = 957 and N2 = 3,885) and 1 smaller sample of adolescents and adults (N3 = 416), 3 studies of item selection for measurement of anxiety were conducted to determine if item selection differed across gender when traditional psychometric methods were applied. Applying a common set of item selection rules for males and for females, the same items were selected for inclusion on various measures of anxiety with differing item-response formats with comparable internal consistency reliability obtained using separate gender and combined gender samples. Standard psychometric methods indicate anxiety is measured in males and females about equally well and by essentially the same items.

Cognitive processing and self-report of lateral preference.

Our knowledge of the human brain has increased more during the past 40 years than at any other time in history. Of particular interest have been the findings of a correspondence between cognitive functions and individual structures of the brain. Similar from a gross anatomical point of view, the hemispheres of the brain have been shown to serve specialized cognitive functions. This work offers an overview of the cognitive aspects of cerebral lateralization as a context for considering this issue, followed by a review of specific self-report techniques in the appraisal of lateral preference.

What I Think and Feel: a revised measure of Children's Manifest Anxiety.

The 1956 adaptation for children of Taylor's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale, was revised to meet current psychometric standards. A 73-item revision draft was administered to 329 school children from grades 1 to 12. Based on item-analysis criteria for rbis > or = .4 and .30 < or = p < or = .70, 28 anxiety items were retained along with 9 of the original 11 Lie scale items. A cross-validation sample of 167 children from grades 2, 5, 9, 10, and 11 produced a KR20 reliability estimate of .85. Anxiety scores did not differ across grade or race. Females scored significantly higher than males. For the Lie scale, significant differences appeared by grade and race. No sex differences were obtained on the Lie scale. The resulting scale appears useful for children in grades 1 to 12 and may aid in future studies of anxiety as well as assisting the clinician in the understanding of individual children.

Black-white differences in memory test performance among children and adolescents.

Racial differences on mental test scores are some of the most well-documented findings in the study of individual differences, yet only in the past 10 years have neuropsychologists undertaken serious examination of ethnic and related demographic concomitants of neuropsychological test performance. The present study examined performance differences for blacks and whites on 14 separate measures of short-term memory. Using a nationally stratified (gender, race, age, SES, region, and community size) population proportionate sampling plan, 168 black and 983 white children and adolescents (ages 5 years to 19 years) were tested. Age corrected deviation scaled scores (mean of 10 and SD of 3) were calculated at 1 year intervals using the method of rolling weighted averages. In sharp contrast to typical findings with intellectual and most other aptitude measures, only one significant difference occurred across race on any of the 14 measures of memory.

Forward and backward memory span should not be combined for clinical analysis.

The practice of combining forward and backward memory span, as represented so prominently on the various Wechsler Scales, to arrive at a composite score for clinical interpretation is examined historically and actuarially using a large (N = 1,342) nationally stratified random sample of children from ages 5 years through 19 years. Past literature does not support the additive nature of forward and backward memory span as elements of a common process. Factor analyses of forward and backward recall using both digits and letters indicate that the two memory processes are distinct as well and should not be combined for clinical interpretation.

Postscripts on premorbid ability estimation: conceptual addenda and a few words on alternative and conditional approaches.

The estimation of premorbid ability levels has been debated for some time. Some of the difficult issues involved are reviewed here and comments provided on certain approaches, some of which tend to be popular for reasons of convenience and false beliefs of their accuracy, and some that are less well-known. Demographic estimation procedures in particular tend to fare better than believed in some research. An additional approach is recommended for further research, one that is equally applicable to children and adults, and that takes maximum advantage of the known relationships among IQ and genetic and environmental variance in intellectual development.

Psychological science and the use of anatomically detailed dolls in child sexual-abuse assessments.

Many devices are used in child assessment and treatment as communication aids, projective tools, and symbolic means of interaction. None are as hotly debated in their application among mental health professionals as dolls with genital details. Anatomically detailed (AD) dolls are often used in sexual-abuse evaluation and treatment with children, but such applications are controversial. This article is the product of a working group formed to review AD doll research and practice. This article reviews historical use of dolls in clinical inquiry and research on sexual behaviors in children, normative use of AD dolls in nonreferred children, differences in children's play behavior and emotional reactions to AD dolls, and memory and suggestibility issues relating to AD-doll use. Recommendations for future research are provided.

Separate digits tests: a brief history, a literature review, and a reexamination of the factor structure of the Test of Memory and Learning (TOMAL).

Following a brief history of Digit Span, a review of 27 articles, selected from 76, addresses the question of whether to scale Digits Forward and Backward separately. The review begins with studies involving Digits Forward, followed in turn by studies of Digits Backward and of both subtests. Finally, the loadings of four TOMAL subtests, Digits Forward and Backward and Letters Forward and Backward, undergo examination in the context of two, three, and four factor promax solutions, with corresponding varimax solutions provided for comparison. The analysis leads to several conclusions. Though Digits Forward and Backward show similarities, they load differently in the three and four factor solutions; Digits Backward also displays a spatial element, and perhaps a transformative element, not apparent in Digits Forward. Moreover, the differences between the two measures have important neurologic and diagnostic implications.

Comparative three-factor solutions of the WISC-III and WISR-R at 11 age levels between 6-1/2 and 16-1/2 years.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Third Edition (WISC-III) was factor analyzed at ages 6 12 through 16 12 years of age (n = 200 per age group). The study replicated analyses conducted by Kaufman (1975) with the WISC-R using comparable subtests across the two scales. As in the WISC-R study, a three-factor structure emerged as consistent across the age range of the WISC-III: Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Organization, and Freedom from Distractibility. The results of the study are discussed in terms of their clinical utility with useful statistics for the interpretation of the WISC-III presented.

Is the pattern of intellectual growth and decline across the adult life span different for men and women?

Gender comparisons on the WAIS-R were made for 1,480 adults from the standardization sample, ages 20-74 years, to determine whether men and women differ in their age-related patterns of change on tests of fluid and crystallized abilities. Multivariate analyses of covariance and univariate analyses of covariance were conducted, covarying education, to examine the age + gender interactions. These interactions tended to be nonsignificant and trivial for the WAIS-R Verbal and Performance scales and the 11 subtests, which suggests that both men and women maintain their crystallized abilities through old age, but show early, rapid declines in fluid ability. These results were interpreted in terms of the literature on aging and intelligence, gender differences in cognitive abilities, and gender differences in V-P patterns for patients with unilateral brain damage.