Community Violence in Early Adolescence: Assessing Coping Strategies for Reducing Delinquency and Aggression.

Objective: Exposure to community violence has disabling effects on the mental health of youth in the US, especially for African American adolescents from underserved, urban communities, fostering increased externalizing problems. The current study assessed the utility of problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping strategies for reducing aggression and delinquency amidst this uncontrollable stress. It was hypothesized that greater use of avoidant strategies would most consistently reduce externalizing behaviors over time, with these effects being stronger for boys than girls. Method: Following confirmatory factor analyses, longitudinal moderated moderation analyses were conducted with a sample of 263 Black students from low-income, urban areas (60% female, M = 11.65 years), who completed surveys in sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Results: For sixth grade boys who witnessed violence, using more problem-focused strategies increased delinquency in eighth grade, whereas less use of problem-focused, emotion-focused, and avoidant coping increased eighth grade delinquency for girls with both indirect and direct violence exposure. Girls showed a similar pattern for aggression in seventh and eighth grade. Problem-focused coping was endorsed most frequently overall by boys and girls. Violence exposure was associated with greater use of avoidant strategies in sixth grade. Conclusions: These results suggest that using fewer coping strategies was detrimental for girls, while boys may require more resources to support their coping efforts. This research enhances understanding of how boys and girls adaptively cope with community violence differently, while addressing concerns with conceptualizing categories of coping to inform clinicians in these communities.

The role of positive youth development on mental health for youth of color living in high-stress communities: A strengths-based approach.

Adolescents of color experiencing chronic environmental stress are at an increased risk for adverse mental health concerns and problems behaviors. Concepts drawn from the Positive Youth Development (PYD) framework identify internal and external assets that suggest positive outcomes for youth and promote resilience. The present study investigated the relationship between the Five Cs and Sixth C models of PYD (represented by youth competence, confidence, connection, caring, character, and contribution) and the likelihood of anxiety/depressive symptoms and behaviors in conflict with the law among urban youth of color residing in high-stress communities. Data were collected during a longitudinal cross-age peer-mentoring program from a sample of 151 adolescents of color (M = 16). Results indicated that, when combined, youth competence, confidence, connection, caring, character, and contribution predicted decreases in behaviors in conflict with the law over time. Internal PYD dimensions were significantly associated with decreased behaviors in conflict with the law over time, whereas external PYD dimensions were significantly associated with decreased anxiety and depressive symptoms over time. In addition, gender and levels of chronic environmental stress were found to moderate the relationship between PYD and psychosocial outcomes. The findings suggest the value of the PYD framework for understanding psychosocial outcomes for urban youth of color. Limitations of the present study and implications for future research are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Violence, Place, and Strengthened Space: A Review of Immigration Stress, Violence Exposure, and Intervention for Immigrant Latinx Youth and Families.

Latinx immigrant families are greatly impacted by US policies and practices that limit immigrant families' and children's rights. This article reviews the effects of such policies and the growing literature examining migration experiences. Latinx immigrant youth and parents may encounter multiple stressors across the stages of migration, including physical and structural violence, fear, poverty, and discrimination, which contribute to higher rates of mental health problems in this population. Despite significant trauma exposure, immigrants demonstrate incredible resilience within themselves, their families, and their communities and through movements and policies aimed at protecting their rights. Numerous culturally relevant universal, targeted, and intensive interventions were developed to magnify these protective factors to promote healing, advance immigration reform, and provide trauma-informed training and psychoeducation. Psychologistsplay a crucial role in implementing, evaluating, and advocating for accessible and collaborative approaches to care so that Latinx immigrant families have the resources to combat the harmful sequelae of immigration stress.

Violence exposure, posttraumatic stress, and affect variability among African American Youth: A time sampling approach.

The current study examines the immediate and short-term impact of daily exposure to community violence on same-day and next-day levels of posttraumatic stress symptomatology and various affective states (i.e., dysphoria, hostility, and anxiety), in a sample of 268 African American adolescents living in urban, low-income, high-violence neighborhoods (Mage = 11.65; 59% female). In addition, the moderating role of affective state variability on this relationship was examined. This study utilized experience sampling method and a daily sampling approach, which contributes a more robust investigation of the short-term effects of violence exposure in youth. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that community violence exposure was positively associated with same-day and next-day symptoms of posttraumatic stress. Violence exposure also exhibited an immediate effect on dysphoria, anxiety, and hostility levels. Youth variability in dysphoria exacerbated the effect of violence exposure on concurrent or next-day posttraumatic stress, dysphoria, and hostility. Moreover, variability in anxiety and hostility exacerbated the experience of next-day hostility. The clinical implications relating to these findings, such as the importance of implementing screening for posttraumatic stress following exposure, the incorporation of preventative treatments among those at risk of exposure, and the targeting of emotion regulation in treatments with adolescents, are discussed.

Children's Exposure to Violence across Contexts in Relation to Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms.

OBJECTIVE: Children in low-income, urban neighborhoods are at high risk of exposure to violence (ETV) across settings and subsequent posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). Little research has examined how multiple forms of ETV co-occur and relate to variations in children's posttraumatic responses. Furthermore, previous research primarily uses variable-centered methods, which can obscure person-level differences. The current study used person-centered methods to derive commonly occurring patterns of ETV by examining frequency of witnessing and victimization across family, school, and community contexts. The current study related profiles of ETV to demographic variables and PTSS, with the goal of obtaining nuanced representations of urban children's experiences of, risk factors for, and responses to violence. METHOD: Patterns of ETV were examined in a sample of 239 African American 7th grade youth using latent profile analysis. Profiles were related to demographic variables and PTSS using logistic regression. RESULTS: Results showed three profiles: Low (N = 130, 54.4%), Moderate (N = 87; 36.4%), and High (N = 22; 9.2%) Exposure groups. The High Exposure group showed the highest levels of PTSS. The Moderate group showed the lowest levels of all PTSS, except dissociation. In contrast, the Low Exposure group showed significantly higher numbing and hypervigilance than the Moderate Exposure group. CONCLUSIONS: Results support a dose-response model of ETV and PTSS, but implicate situational factors (e.g., setting) as important in understanding posttraumatic responses. The systematic variation in ETV and subsequent differences in PTSS expression illustrate the need for individualized trauma-informed intervention and thorough screenings in low-income, urban neighborhoods.

Immigration policy, practices, and procedures: The impact on the mental health of Mexican and Central American youth and families.

Currently, 15 million Mexican and Central American individuals live in the United States, with this number projected to rise in the next few decades (Lesser & Batalova, 2017; Zong & Batalova, 2017). Research has begun to investigate the impact of the nation's immigration practices and policies on immigrant Latino/a families and youth. Current immigration policies can create vulnerabilities, including fear and mistrust, discrimination, limited access to services, parent-child separation, and poverty. These experiences increase risk for poor mental health outcomes and may exacerbate prior exposure to traumas in the home country (e.g., violence) and during migration (e.g., extortion). This paper reviews current immigration policies for arriving Mexican and Central American immigrants and links to mental health among documented and undocumented immigrant families and youth. A discussion of positive policies and resources that may mitigate the damaging impact of immigration-related stress is included. Finally, social justice implications for clinicians and researchers are discussed, with culturally sensitive interventions, advocacy, and dissemination of research and policy as primary recommendations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Positive Peer Association Among Black American Youth and the Roles of Ethnic Identity and Gender.

The study examined whether peer association, a subtype of peer influence that involves the indirect modeling of behaviors, can promote positive development among Black American adolescents living in high-risk neighborhoods. Data were collected during a three-year longitudinal study from a sample of 316 Black American adolescents (M = 11.65 years). As positive peer association increased over time, youth experienced an increase in self-esteem, school connectedness, paternal and maternal closeness, and a decrease in supportive beliefs about aggression. Additionally, lower ethnic identity appeared to account for why some youth experienced a sharper increase in maternal and paternal closeness as positive peer association increased. Future interventions should consider harnessing the ability of prosocial peers to foster healthy development.

Posttraumatic Stress, Family Functioning, and Externalizing in Adolescents Exposed to Violence: A Moderated Mediation Model.

Exposure to community violence disproportionately impacts low-income, minority youth and is associated with posttraumatic stress symptoms and maladaptive adjustment. This study investigates whether posttraumatic stress mediates the relation between exposure to community violence and externalizing symptoms and the moderating role of family cohesion and daily family support in buffering these effects on later externalizing. Low-income, African American 7th-grade students (M age = 12.57 years; N = 254) from high-crime neighborhoods participated in a 2-year longitudinal study measuring the effects of community violence exposure. The students completed questionnaires administered by research staff over 5 consecutive days for each year of the study. Family cohesion and daily family support exhibited a significant buffering effect for several outcomes. Posttraumatic stress significantly mediated the effect of witnessing community violence on subsequent aggression. The strength of these indirect effects depended on level of family cohesion. The findings provide evidence in support of interventions provided at both individual and family levels. Mental health providers working with this population should be aware of the intertwined nature of exposure to community violence, posttraumatic stress, and subsequent maladaptive outcomes.

Predictors and Profiles of Antiretroviral Therapy Adherence Among African American Adolescents and Young Adult Males Living with HIV.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is crucial for thwarting HIV disease progression and reducing secondary HIV transmission, yet youth living with HIV (YLH) struggle with adherence. The highest rates of new HIV infections in the United States occur in young African American men. A sample of 387 HIV-positive young African American males on ART was selected from a cross-sectional assessment of (YLH) receiving medical care within the Adolescent Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions (ATN) from 2010 to 2012 (12-24 years old, median 22.00, SD 2.08). Participants completed self-reported adherence, demographic, health, and psychosocial measures. Sixty-two percent self-reported 100% ART adherence. Optimal data analysis identified frequency of cannabis use during the past 3 months as the strongest independent predictor of adherence, yielding moderate effect strength sensitivity (ESS) = 27.1, p < 0.001. Among participants with infrequent cannabis use, 72% reported full adherence; in contrast, only 45% of participants who used cannabis frequently reported full adherence. Classification tree analysis (CTA) was utilized to improve classification accuracy and to identify the pathways of ART adherence and nonadherence. The CTA model evidenced a 38% improvement above chance for correctly classifying participants as ART adherent or nonadherent. Participants most likely to be adherent were those with low psychological distress and minimal alcohol use (82% were adherent). Participants least likely to be adherent were those with higher psychological distress and engaged in weekly cannabis use (69% were nonadherent). Findings suggest multiple profiles of ART adherence for young African American males living with HIV and argue for targeted psychosocial interventions.

Relations of Parenting to Adolescent Externalizing and Internalizing Distress Moderated by Perception of Neighborhood Danger.

Parental monitoring and warmth have traditionally been studied in the context of White, middle-class families. This article explores optimal levels of these parenting behaviors in preventing adolescent psychopathology in impoverished, urban high-crime areas while accounting for child perceptions of neighborhood danger. In this study, data were collected longitudinally at 2 time points 1 year apart from a sample of 254 African American young adolescents (T1: M age = 12.6 years, 41% male) and their parents. Parental monitoring and warmth, child perception of neighborhood danger, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors were measured using questionnaires. Child internalizing behaviors were also measured using a time sampling technique capturing in vivo accounts of daily distress. Findings indicated associations between parental monitoring and children's externalizing behaviors along with linear and quadratic associations between parental monitoring and internalizing behaviors. Monitoring and warmth were differentially related to symptoms depending on neighborhood danger level. When children perceived less danger, more monitoring related to less externalizing. When children perceived more danger, more warmth related to less internalizing. In addition, adolescents' perceptions of neighborhood danger emerged as equally strong as monitoring and warmth in predicting symptoms. This study underscores the influence of carefully considering parenting approaches and which techniques optimally prevent adolescents' externalizing, as well as prevent internalizing difficulties. It also highlights how context affects mental health, specifically how perceptions of danger negatively influence adolescents' psychopathology, emphasizing the importance of initiatives to reduce violence in communities.

The Impact of Community Violence on School-Based Research.

Research conducted on youth exposure to violence has generally focused on documenting the prevalence of community violence and its emotional and behavioral implications. However, there is a dearth of information related to the impact of violence on the implementation and evaluation of community and school-based programs. This commentary examines the impact of community violence on a school-based research program. It is also a brief summary of the detrimental effects of exposure to community violence on psychological and academic functioning and health outcomes. An example of the impact of community violence on the implementation of a school-based asthma program will be addressed. Implications for school nurses will be discussed.

The Role of Neighborhood in the Development of Aggression in Urban African American Youth: A Multilevel Analysis.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of neighborhood disadvantage and perceptions of neighborhood on the development of aggressive behavior among a sample of urban low-income African American middle school aged youth (mean age = 11.65 years). Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicated that youth experienced significant changes in rates of aggression across the three middle school years, and that on average, negative youth perceptions of neighborhood predicted increases in aggression. Both parent and youth perceptions of neighborhood disadvantage trended toward significance as a moderator between objective neighborhood characteristics and aggression. These results are in accordance with past research, which suggests that personal evaluations of the disadvantage of a neighborhood influence child development and behavior. Future studies should examine the role that perceptions play in youth development, as well as in interventions geared towards thwarting youth aggression.

The Relation of Severity and Type of Community Violence Exposure to Emotional Distress and Problem Behaviors Among Urban African American Adolescents.

Severity level and type of exposure to community violence were examined to determine their effect on emotional distress and problem behaviors among 234 low-income urban African American early adolescents. There were 4 violence exposure scales developed from a principal component analysis of the Richters and Martinez (1993) exposure to violence scale: moderate and severe witnessing and moderate and severe victimization. Regression analyses indicated that moderate victimization was the most consistent predictor of emotional distress and behavioral problems, whereas moderate witnessing did not relate to any of the dependent variables. Severe victimization predicted depression and delinquency, whereas severe witnessing predicted posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and delinquency. Witnessing and victimization scales based on severity of exposure better represented the experience than combining all data into a single exposure or simply witnessing and victimization scales.

Exposure to community violence and social maladjustment among urban African American youth.

OBJECTIVE: Because of the evidence that children living in inner city communities are chronically exposed to violence, the goal of the present study was to longitudinally explore the reciprocal and perpetuating relationship between exposure to violence and child social maladjustment. METHOD: Participants were 268 African American students (M age = 11.65 years, 40% males and 60% females) from six inner city Chicago public schools in high crime neighborhoods. Data was collected longitudinally over three years on measures of demographic information, exposure to community violence, and social adjustment. It was hypothesized that high levels of exposure to community violence, would be related to higher reports of social maladjustment (both cross-sectionally and longitudinally) and these variables would interact transactionally, leading to a greater risk of exposure to violence. RESULTS: These hypotheses were tested using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and results revealed that exposure to community violence was not consistently linked to social maladjustment. Transactional results revealed that there are certain periods in development in which being more socially maladjusted may put a youth in risk for more exposure to violence. CONCLUSIONS: Results of the present study have important implications for interventions for inner-city youth exposed to violence.

Multimethod analyses of discretionary time use and health behaviors among urban low-income African-American adolescents: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this pilot study was to examine the relations between discretionary time (DT) social context, health behaviors (dietary intake and physical activity), and body mass index (BMI) in a sample of urban low-income African-American early adolescents. METHODS: Multiple methods were used, including accelerometers, 24-hour dietary recalls, anthropometric measurements, and Experience Sampling Method (ESM). Participants included 9 boys (mean = 12.9 years) and 16 girls (mean = 12.9 years). Sixteen participants were at a healthy weight (10 girls and 6 boys), and 9 were overweight or obese (5 girls and 3 boys). RESULTS: Eighth graders had higher BMI z scores, engaged in less healthful eating during DT, and spent less time in vigorous exercise in DT than sixth graders. Participants spent the majority of DT with siblings, which was associated with increased light physical activity as measured by accelerometers. The ESM data suggested that adolescents engaged in increased physical activity and decreased sedentary activity when with peers but increased sedentary activity when with parents. Increased percentage of DT spent with parents was associated with increased daily fat intake. Data also indicate high consumption of unhealthy foods across all DT social contexts and activities. CONCLUSIONS: Peers may provide a protective social context with regard to obesity-related health behaviors. Targeting changes in health behaviors during the middle school years may be an effective means of decreasing obesity risk among urban African-American adolescents. Interventions for urban African-American early adolescents may benefit from facilitating physical activity with peers and targeting change in family health behaviors.

Effects of coping-skills training in low-income urban African-American adolescents with asthma.

BACKGROUND: Minority teens with asthma are at particular risk for this life-threatening disease due to increased morbidity and mortality rates in addition to the normal challenges of adolescence. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this randomized controlled trial (n = 137) was to determine the effects of a coping-skills training program (intervention) compared with standard asthma education (attention control) in African-American teens with asthma. METHODS: Adolescents were recruited from five African-American dominant high schools serving low-income areas of Chicago. Data were collected at baseline, 2 months (immediately following the intervention), 6 months, and 12 months. Results. Both groups improved over time, with significant increases in asthma-related quality of life, asthma knowledge, and asthma self-efficacy, accompanied by decreases in symptom days and asthma-related school absences. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that coping-skills training as implemented in this study provided no additional benefit beyond that experienced in the control group. However, group-based interventions delivered in the school setting may be beneficial for low-income, minority teens with asthma.

Burgeoning directions for the prevention of youth violence. Introduction.

Despite focused efforts toward the prevention of youth violence within the United States, it continues to adversely affect the lives of children and families within our communities and society at large. The articles in this issue address risk and protective factors that affect violence among urban youth to inform prevention and treatment. Pathways to youth violence are complex and may begin early. Prevention efforts in school, family, and community settings that address risk and protective factors within a socially, culturally, and ecologically valid context early in human development are crucial. While challenges remain for the prevention of youth violence, research suggests opportunities to improve our efforts. Federal agency initiatives in partnership with communities are currently underway to increase the knowledge base and advance prevention of youth violence among diverse populations.

Exposure to community violence and daily feeling states among urban African American youth.

This longitudinal study examined the relationships between exposure to community violence and daily feeling states among 175 6th- through 8th-grade African American students. The relationships were tested both cross-sectionally and longitudinally over the 3-year span. Four daily feeling state subscales: contented, hostile, anxious, and dysphoric were developed from a factor analysis of the 30 Experience Sampling Method (ESM) feeling states. Cross-sectionally, regression analyses indicated that exposure to violence individually predicted most feeling states and more variability in most feeling states in 7th and 8th grades. When feeling states were entered into regressions together, fewer predicted violence exposure. Longitudinally, regression analyses revealed that more variability in dysphoric feelings in 6th grade predicted exposure to violence in 7th grade, while 6th-grade hostile and anxious feelings predicted 8th-grade exposure change. Longitudinal analyses did not indicate that exposure to community violence predicted later daily feeling states. Preventive and intervention implications are addressed.

Exposure to community violence and protective and risky contexts among low income urban African American adolescents: a prospective study.

This study examined protective and risky companionship and locations for exposure to community violence among African American young adolescents living in high crime, urban areas. The Experience Sampling Method (ESM), an in vivo data collection method, was employed to gather information from 233 students (62% female) over 3 years, beginning in the 6th grade. Questionnaire variables of exposure to community violence were regressed onto ESM companionship and location variables, cross-sectionally and longitudinally, separately for boys and girls. At different points, time spent with parents, in school, and outside in private space was associated with less exposure to violence for boys and girls, while time spent with girls was protective for boys. In addition, time spent outside in public and with older peers was associated with increased risk for boys and girls. These findings are discussed in relation to previous and potential future research, and to strategies to prevent exposure to community violence.

The after-school needs and resources of a low-income urban community: surveying youth and parents for community change.

Using a collaborative research approach, this project describes a partnership between community residents and university researchers to develop a comprehensive survey of the after-school needs of a low-income urban community in a large Midwestern city. Surveying parents and children was considered particularly important because the current literature on after-school does not include much input from them, the key stakeholders in programming. By surveying pre- and young adolescent youth (N = 416) and parents (N = 225) in the community, information was gathered to document the need for after-school programming, tap program preferences, and uncover barriers to participation and enrollment. Survey findings revealed significant differences between youth and parent perspectives. Disagreements between youth and parent survey responses suggest that after-school programs in the community should offer a balance of academic, recreational, and social activities, as well as a tutoring or homework component. Further, in order to increase participation and attendance rates, community after-school programs need to address the following barriers to participation: safety, transportation, family responsibilities (e.g., care for siblings, household chores), and access to information about available programs. These findings guided the planning of future after-school programs. The survey results and comparisons between youth and parent data will be presented.