Lipopolysaccharide Infusion as a Porcine Endotoxemic Shock Model.

Sepsis and septic shock are frequently encountered in patients treated in intensive care units (ICUs) and are among the leading causes of death in these patients. It is caused by a dysregulated immune response to an infection. Even with optimized treatment, mortality rates remain high, which makes further insights into the pathophysiology and new treatment options necessary. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a component of the cell membrane of gram-negative bacteria, which are often responsible for infections causing sepsis and septic shock. The severity and high mortality of sepsis and septic shock make standardized experimental studies in humans impossible. Thus, an animal model is needed for further studies. The pig is especially well suited for this purpose as it closely resembles humans in anatomy, physiology, and size. This protocol provides an experimental model for endotoxemic shock in pigs by LPS infusion. We were able to reliably induce changes frequently observed in septic shock patients, including hemodynamic instability, respiratory failure, and acidosis. This will allow researchers to gain valuable insight into this highly relevant condition and evaluate new therapeutic approaches in an experimental setting.

Ultra-low tidal volume ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation shows no mitigating effect on pulmonary end-organ damage compared to standard ventilation: insights from a porcine model.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine whether ultra-low tidal volume ventilation (ULTVV) applied during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) compared with standard ventilation (intermittent positive pressure ventilation, IPPV) can reduce pulmonary end-organ damage in the post-resuscitation period. METHODS: A prospective, randomized trial was conducted using a porcine model (n = 45). The animals were divided into three groups: IPPV, ULTVV, and a sham control group. Juvenile male pigs underwent CPR after inducing ventricular fibrillation and received the designated ventilation intervention [IPPV: tidal volume 6-8 ml per kilogram body weight (ml/kg BW), respiratory rate 10/min, FiO2 1.0; ULTVV: tidal volume 2-3 ml/kg BW, respiratory rate 50/min, FiO2 1.0]. A 20-h observation period followed if return of spontaneous circulation was achieved. Histopathological examination using the diffuse alveolar damage scoring system was performed on postmortem lung tissue samples. Arterial and venous blood gas analyses and ventilation/perfusion measurements via multiple inert gas elimination technique (MIGET) were repeatedly recorded during the experiment. RESULTS: Out of the 45 experiments conducted, 28 animals were excluded based on predefined criteria. Histopathological analysis showed no significant differences in lung damage between the ULTVV and IPPV groups. ULTVV demonstrated adequate oxygenation and decarboxylation. MIGET measurements during and after resuscitation revealed no significant differences between the intervention groups. CONCLUSION: In the short-term follow-up phase, ULTVV demonstrated similar histopathological changes and functional pulmonary parameters compared to standard ventilation. Further research is needed to investigate the long-term effects and clinical implications of ULTVV in resuscitation settings.

Awake Tracheal Intubation Is Associated with Fewer Adverse Events in Critical Care Patients than Anaesthetised Tracheal Intubation.

BACKGROUND: Tracheal intubation in critical care is a high-risk procedure requiring significant expertise and airway strategy modification. We hypothesise that awake tracheal intubation is associated with a lower incidence of severe adverse events compared to standard tracheal intubation in critical care patients. METHODS: Records were acquired for all tracheal intubations performed from 2020 to 2022 for critical care patients at a tertiary hospital. Each awake tracheal intubation case, using a videolaryngoscope with a hyperangulated blade (McGrath® MAC X-Blade), was propensity matched with two controls (1:2 ratio; standard intubation videolaryngoscopy (VL) and direct laryngoscopy (DL) undergoing general anaesthesia). The primary endpoint was the incidence of adverse events, defined as a mean arterial pressure of <55 mmHg (hypotension), SpO2 < 80% (desaturation) after sufficient preoxygenation, or peri-interventional cardiac arrest. RESULTS: Of the 135 tracheal intubations included for analysis, 45 involved the use of an awake tracheal intubation. At least one adverse event occurred after tracheal intubation in 36/135 (27%) of patients, including awake 1/45 (2.2%; 1/1 hypotension), VL 10/45 (22%; 6/10 hypotension and 4/10 desaturation), and DL 25/45 (47%; 10/25 hypotension, 12/25 desaturation, and 3/25 cardiac arrest; p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: In this retrospective observational study of intubation practices in critical care patients, awake tracheal intubation was associated with a lower incidence of severe adverse events than anaesthetised tracheal intubation.

Clinical dosage of lidocaine does not impact the biomedical outcome of sepsis-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in a porcine model.

Background: Sepsis is a common disease in intensive care units worldwide, which is associated with high morbidity and mortality. This process is often associated with multiple organ failure including acute lung injury. Although massive research efforts have been made for decades, there is no specific therapy for sepsis to date. Early and best treatment is crucial. Lidocaine is a common local anesthetic and used worldwide. It blocks the fast voltage-gated sodium (Na+) channels in the neuronal cell membrane responsible for signal propagation. Recent studies show that lidocaine administered intravenously improves pulmonary function and protects pulmonary tissue in pigs under hemorrhagic shock, sepsis and under pulmonary surgery. The aim of this study is to show that lidocaine inhalative induces equivalent effects as lidocaine intravenously in pigs in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis with acute lung injury. Methods: After approval of the local State and Institutional Animal Care Committee, to induce the septic inflammatory response a continuous infusion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was administered to the pigs in deep anesthesia. Following induction and stabilisation of sepsis, the study medication was randomly assigned to one of three groups: (1) lidocaine intravenously, (2) lidocaine per inhalation and (3) sham group. All animals were monitored for 8 h using advanced and extended cardiorespiratory monitoring. Postmortem assessment included pulmonary mRNA expression of mediators of early inflammatory response (IL-6 & TNF-alpha), wet-to-dry ratio and lung histology. Results: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) was successfully induced after sepsis-induction with LPS in all three groups measured by a significant decrease in the PaO2/FiO2 ratio. Further, septic hemodynamic alterations were seen in all three groups. Leucocytes and platelets dropped statistically over time due to septic alterations in all groups. The wet-to-dry ratio and the lung histology showed no differences between the groups. Additionally, the pulmonary mRNA expression of the inflammatory mediators IL-6 and TNF-alpha showed no significant changes between the groups. The proposed anti-inflammatory and lung protective effects of lidocaine in sepsis-induced acute lung injury could not be proven in this study.

The Influence of Ultra-Low Tidal Volume Ventilation during Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation on Renal and Hepatic End-Organ Damage in a Porcine Model.

The optimal ventilation strategy during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) has eluded scientists for years. This porcine study aims to validate the hypothesis that ultra-low tidal volume ventilation (tidal volume 2-3 mL kg-1; ULTVV) minimizes renal and hepatic end-organ damage when compared to standard intermittent positive pressure ventilation (tidal volume 8-10 mL kg-1; IPPV) during CPR. After induced ventricular fibrillation, the animals were ventilated using an established CPR protocol. Upon return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), the follow-up was 20 h. After sacrifice, kidney and liver samples were harvested and analyzed histopathologically using an Endothelial, Glomerular, Tubular, and Interstitial (EGTI) scoring system for the kidney and a newly developed scoring system for the liver. Of 69 animals, 5 in the IPPV group and 6 in the ULTVV group achieved sustained ROSC and were enlisted, while 4 served as the sham group. Creatinine clearance was significantly lower in the IPPV-group than in the sham group (p < 0.001). The total EGTI score was significantly higher for ULTVV than for the sham group (p = 0.038). Aminotransferase levels and liver score showed no significant difference between the intervention groups. ULTVV may be advantageous when compared to standard ventilation during CPR in the short-term ROSC follow-up period.

Resveratrol influences pulmonary mechanics and inflammatory response in a porcine ARDS model.

AIMS: Influencing the inflammatory response represents an important branch in ARDS research. The naturally occurring polyphenol derivative resveratrol has already been confirmed to have strong anti-inflammatory effects on the cardiac and metabolic system. In the present study, we investigated the propagated anti-inflammatory effects of intravenous resveratrol in a porcine ARDS model. MAIN METHODS: 20 domestic pigs (30 ± 2 kg; approval G20-1-135), divided into three groups: 1. resveratrol high dose (HD; n = 8), single bolus of 20 mg/kg over 15 min. 2. resveratrol low dose (LD; n = 8), single bolus of 10 mg/kg over 15 min. 3. Vehicle (n = 4), with the carrier solution DMSO over 15 min administered after ARDS induction. ARDS induction: using BAL/oleic acid and a subsequent test period of 8 h. Measurement parameters: Hemodynamics/spirometry data were collected continuously, BGA/laboratory parameters repetitively. Post-mortem: analysis of pulmonary inflammatory markers. STATISTICS: Two-way analysis of variance (repeated measurement) and Student-Newman-Keuls method. KEY FINDINGS: Resveratrol HD significantly reduced the expression of TNF-alpha in lung tissue compared to the LD group (p < 0.05). A significantly increased functional residual capacity (FRC) could be demonstrated for the HD group at the end of the test (p < 0.05 for HD vs. LD/vehicle). Further, resveratrol HD reduced statistically the EVLWI compared to LD/vehicle (p < 0.05 at T4/T8). SIGNIFICANCE: In this study, resveratrol HD ameliorated pulmonary mechanics as reported for the FRC and EVLWI. Further, the proposed anti-inflammatory effects of resveratrol, a significant reduction in the expression of TNF-alpha was observed in the HD group.

Elevated lactate levels and impaired lactate clearance during extracorporeal life support (ECLS) are associated with poor outcome in cardiac surgery patients.

The use of extracorporeal life support (ECLS) as part of cardio-circulatory support has increased rapidly in recent years. Severe hyperlactatemia is not uncommon in this group of patients. Lactate peak concentrations and lactate clearance have already been identified as independent marker for mortality in critical ill patients without mechanical device support. The aim of this study was to determine a supposed correlation between the variables lactate peak concentration and clearance in the blood and mortality in the ECLS context. Therefore, a total of 51 cardiac surgery ICU patients with ECLS therapy were included in this retrospective, clinical observational study (survivors n = 23; non-survivors n = 28). Lactate measurement was performed before, during and after ECLS therapy. Further, common ICU scores (SAPSII, SOFA, TISS28), the rates of transfusion and the different vasopressor therapies will be compared. Significant elevated peak lactate levels and poor lactate clearance were associated with higher mortality during ECLS therapy (p < 0.001). Deceased patients had higher SAPSII scores (p < 0.001), received more transfusions (p < 0.001) and presented with higher rates of epinephrine (p < 0.001). In conclusion, hyperlactatemia during ECLS therapy is a time sensitive emergency. Lactate cannot be cleared in all patients. Reversible causes should be explored and treated. In cases where the cause is irreversible, the prognosis of elevated lactate concentrations and reduced clearance is very poor.

Impact of perioperative red blood cell transfusion, anemia of cancer and global health status on the prognosis of elderly patients with endometrial and ovarian cancer.

Introduction: Perioperative red blood cell (RBC) transfusions have been associated with increased morbidity and worse oncological outcome in some solid neoplasms. In order to elucidate whether RBC transfusions themselves, the preoperative anemia of cancer (AOC), or the impaired global health status might explain this impact on patients with endometrial cancer (EC) or ovarian cancer (OC), we performed a retrospective, single-institution cohort study. Materials and methods: Women older than 60 years with EC or OC were included. The influence of RBC transfusions, AOC, and frailty status determined by the G8 geriatric screening tool (G8 score), as well as the clinical-pathological cancer characteristics on progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS), was determined by using the Kaplan-Meier method and the Cox regression analyses. Results: In total, 263 patients with EC (n = 152) and OC (n = 111) were included in the study. Patients with EC receiving RBC transfusions were faced with a significantly shorter 5-year PFS (79.8% vs. 26.0%; p < 0.001) and 5-year OS (82.6% vs. 25.7%; p < 0.001). In multivariable analyses, besides established clinical-pathological cancer characteristics, the RBC transfusions remained the only significant prognostic parameter for PFS (HR: 1.76; 95%-CI [1.01-3.07]) and OS (HR: 2.38; 95%-CI [1.50-3.78]). In OC, the G8 score stratified the cohort in terms of PFS rates (G8-non-frail 53.4% vs. G8-frail 16.7%; p = 0.010) and AOC stratified the cohort for 5-year OS estimates (non-anemic: 36.7% vs. anemic: 10.6%; p = 0.008). Multivariable Cox regression analyses determined the G8 score and FIGO stage as independent prognostic factors in terms of PFS (HR: 2.23; 95%-CI [1.16-4.32] and HR: 6.52; 95%-CI [1.51-28.07], respectively). For OS, only the TNM tumor stage retained independent significance (HR: 3.75; 95%-CI [1.87-7.53]). Discussion: The results of this trial demonstrate the negative impact of RBC transfusions on the prognosis of patients with EC. Contrastingly, the prognosis of OC is altered by the preoperative global health status rather than AOC or RBC transfusions. In summary, we suggested a cumulatively restrictive transfusion management in G8-non-frail EC patients and postulated a more moderate transfusion management based on the treatment of symptomatic anemia without survival deficits in OC patients.

Endotracheal Intubation Using a Flexible Intubation Endoscope As a Standardized Model for Safe Airway Management in Swine.

Endotracheal intubation is often a basic requirement for translational research in porcine models for various interventions that require a secured airway or high ventilation pressures. Endotracheal intubation is a challenging skill, requiring a minimum number of successful endotracheal intubations to achieve a high success rate under optimal conditions, which is often unachievable for non-anaesthesiology researchers. Due to the specific porcine airway anatomy, a difficult airway can usually be assumed. The impossibility of establishing a secure airway can result in injury, adverse events, or death of the laboratory animal. Using a prospective, randomized, controlled evaluation approach, it has been shown that fiberoptic-assisted endotracheal intubation takes longer but has a higher first-pass success rate than conventional intubation without causing clinically relevant drops in oxygen saturation. This model presents a standardized regimen for endoscopically guided endotracheal intubation, providing a secured airway, especially for researchers who are inexperienced in the technique of endotracheal intubation via direct laryngoscopy. This procedure is expected to minimize animal suffering and unnecessary animal losses.

Comparison of two porcine acute lung injury models: a post-hoc analysis.

BACKGROUND: Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common disease in intensive care medicine. Despite intensive research, mortality rates are high, not even in COVID-19 ARDS. Thereby, pigs offer some advantages to study the characteristics of ARDS. Many different ARDS models exist. Most of the articles published focused on histopathological and microscopic lung alterations to identify the most suitable animal ARDS model. "Macroscopic" observations and descriptions are often missing. Therefore, we performed a post-hoc comparison of two common ARDS models for pigs: lipopolysaccharide (LPS) vs. a double-hit model (bronchoalveolar lavage + oleic acid infusion). We investigated hemodynamic, spirometric and laboratory changes as another main clinical part of ARDS. RESULTS: The groups were compared by two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a post-hoc Student-Newman-Keuls test. A p value lower than 0.05 was accepted as significant. All animals (n = 8 double-hit ARDS; n = 8 LPS ARDS) survived the observation period of 8 h. ARDS induction with reduced oxygen indices was successful performed in both models (76 ± 35/225 ± 54/212 ± 79 vs. 367 ± 64; T0/T4/T8 vs. BLH for double-hit; 238 ± 57/144 ± 59 vs. 509 ± 41; T4/T8 vs. BLH for LPS; p < 0.05). ARDS induced with LPS leads to more hemodynamic (mean arterial pulmonary pressure 35 ± 3/30 ± 3 vs. 28 ± 4/23 ± 4; T4/T8 LPS vs. double-hit; p < 0.05; doses of norepinephrine 1.18 ± 1.05 vs. 0.11 ± 0.16; LPS vs. double-hit for T8; p < 0.05) and inflammatory (pulmonary IL-6 expression: 2.41e-04 ± 1.08e-04 vs. 1.45e-05 ± 7.26e-06; LPS vs. double-hit; p < 0.05) alterations. ARDS induced by double-hit requires a more invasive ventilator strategy to maintain a sufficient oxygenation (PEEP at T4: 8 ± 3 vs. 6 ± 2; double-hit vs. LPS; p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Both animal ARDS models are feasible and are similar to human presentation of ARDS. If your respiratory research focus on hemodynamic/inflammation variables, the LPS-induced ARDS is a feasible model. Studying different ventilator strategies, the double-hit ARDS model offers a suitable approach.

High PEEP Levels during CPR Improve Ventilation without Deleterious Haemodynamic Effects in Pigs.

Background: Invasive ventilation during cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is very complex due to unique thoracic pressure conditions. Current guidelines do not provide specific recommendations for ventilation during ongoing chest compressions regarding positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP). This trial examines the cardiopulmonary effects of PEEP application during CPR. Methods: Forty-two German landrace pigs were anaesthetised, instrumented, and randomised into six intervention groups. Three PEEP levels (0, 8, and 16 mbar) were compared in high standard and ultralow tidal volume ventilation. After the induction of ventricular fibrillation, mechanical chest compressions and ventilation were initiated and maintained for thirty minutes. Blood gases, ventilation/perfusion ratio, and electrical impedance tomography loops were taken repeatedly. Ventilation pressures and haemodynamic parameters were measured continuously. Postmortem lung tissue damage was assessed using the diffuse alveolar damage (DAD) score. Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS, and p values <0.05 were considered significant. Results: The driving pressure (Pdrive) showed significantly lower values when using PEEP 16 mbar than when using PEEP 8 mbar (p = 0.045) or PEEP 0 mbar (p < 0.001) when adjusted for the ventilation mode. Substantially increased overall lung damage was detected in the PEEP 0 mbar group (vs. PEEP 8 mbar, p = 0.038; vs. PEEP 16 mbar, p = 0.009). No significant differences in mean arterial pressure could be detected. Conclusion: The use of PEEP during CPR seems beneficial because it optimises ventilation pressures and reduces lung damage without significantly compromising blood pressure. Further studies are needed to examine long-term effects in resuscitated animals.

Levosimendan Ameliorates Cardiopulmonary Function but Not Inflammatory Response in a Dual Model of Experimental ARDS.

The calcium sensitiser levosimendan, which is used as an inodilator to treat decompensated heart failure, may also exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. We examined whether treatment with levosimendan improves cardiopulmonary function and is substantially beneficial to the inflammatory response in acute respiratory response syndrome (ARDS). Levosimendan was administered intravenously in a new experimental porcine model of ARDS. For comparison, we used milrinone, another well-known inotropic agent. Our results demonstrated that levosimendan intravenously improved hemodynamics and lung function in a porcine ARDS model. Significant beneficial alterations in the inflammatory response and lung injury were not detected.

Lung-brain 'cross-talk': systemic propagation of cytokines in the ARDS via the bloodstream using a blood transfusion model does not influence cerebral inflammatory response in pigs.

Background: Interorgan cross-talk describes the phenomenon in which a primarily injured organ causes secondary damage to a distant organ. This cross-talk is well known between the lung and brain. One theory suggests that the release and systemic distribution of cytokines via the bloodstream from the primarily affected organ sets in motion proinflammatory cascades in distant organs. In this study, we analysed the role of the systemic distribution of cytokines via the bloodstream in a porcine ARDS model for organ cross-talk and possible inflammatory changes in the brain. Methods: After approval of the State and Institutional Animal Care Committee, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) induction with oleic acid injection was performed in seven animals. Eight hours after ARDS induction, blood (35-40 ml kg-1) was taken from these seven 'ARDS donor' pigs. The collected 'ARDS donor' blood was transfused into seven healthy 'ARDS-recipient' pigs. Three animals served as a control group, and blood from these animals was transfused into three healthy pigs after an appropriate ventilation period. All animals were monitored for 8 h using advanced cardiorespiratory monitoring. Postmortem assessment included cerebral (hippocampal and cortex) mediators of early inflammatory response (IL-6, TNF-alpha, iNOS, sLCN-2), wet-to-dry ratio and lung histology. TNF-alpha serum concentration was measured in all groups. Results: ARDS was successfully induced in the 'ARDS donor' group, and serum TNF-alpha levels were elevated compared with the 'ARDS-recipient' group. In the 'ARDS-recipient' group, neither significant ARDS alterations nor upregulation of inflammatory mediators in the brain tissue were detected after high-volume random allogenic 'ARDS-blood' transfusion. The role of the systemic distribution of inflammatory cytokines from one affected organ to another could not be confirmed in this study.

Hyaluronic acid plasma levels during high versus low tidal volume ventilation in a porcine sepsis model.

BACKGROUND: Shedding of the endothelial glycocalyx can be observed regularly during sepsis. Moreover, sepsis may be associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which requires lung protective ventilation with the two cornerstones of application of low tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure. This study investigated the effect of a lung protective ventilation on the integrity of the endothelial glycocalyx in comparison to a high tidal volume ventilation mode in a porcine model of sepsis-induced ARDS. METHODS: After approval by the State and Institutional Animal Care Committee, 20 male pigs were anesthetized and received a continuous infusion of lipopolysaccharide to induce septic shock. The animals were randomly assigned to either low tidal volume ventilation, high tidal volume ventilation, or no-LPS-group groups and observed for 6 h. In addition to the gas exchange parameters and hematologic analyses, the serum hyaluronic acid concentrations were determined from central venous blood and from pre- and postpulmonary and pre- and postcerebral circulation. Post-mortem analysis included histopathological evaluation and determination of the pulmonary and cerebral wet-to-dry ratios. RESULTS: Both sepsis groups developed ARDS within 6 h of the experiment and showed significantly increased serum levels of hyaluronic acid in comparison to the no-LPS-group. No significant differences in the hyaluronic acid concentrations were detected before and after pulmonary and cerebral circulation. There was also no significant difference in the serum hyaluronic acid concentrations between the two sepsis groups. Post-mortem analysis showed no significant difference between the two sepsis groups. CONCLUSION: In a porcine model of septic shock and ARDS, the serum hyaluronic acid levels were significantly elevated in both sepsis groups in comparison to the no-LPS-group. Intergroup comparison between lung protective ventilated and high tidal ventilated animals revealed no significant differences in the serum hyaluronic acid levels.

Intrabronchial application of extracellular histones shows no proinflammatory effects in swine in a translational pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Extracellular histones have been identified as one molecular factor that can cause and sustain alveolar damage and were linked to high mortality rates in critically ill patients. In this pilot study, we wanted to validate the proinflammatory in vivo effects of local histone application in a prospective translational porcine model. This was combined with the evaluation of an experimental acute lung injury model using intrabronchial lipopolysaccharides, which has been published previously. RESULTS: The targeted application of histones was successful in all animals. Animals showed decreased oxygenation after instillation, but no differences could be detected between the sham and histone treatments. The histologic analyses and inflammatory responses indicated that there were no differences in tissue damage between the groups.

Bronchoalveolar Lavage and Oleic Acid-Injection in Pigs as a Double-Hit Model for Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS).

The treatment of ARDS continues to pose major challenges for intensive care physicians in the 21st century with mortality rates still reaching up to 50% in severe cases. Further research efforts are needed to better understand the complex pathophysiology of this disease. There are different well-established animal models to induce acute lung injury but none has been able to adequately mimic the complex pathomechanisms of ARDS. The most crucial factor for the development of this condition is the damage to the alveolar capillary unit. The combination of two well-established lung injury models allow us to mimic in more detail the underlying pathomechanism. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) leads to surfactant depletion as well as alveolar collapse. The repeated instillation of fluid volumes causes subsequent hypoxemia. Surfactant depletion is a key factor of ARDS in humans. BAL is often combined with other lung injury approaches, but not with a second hit followed by oleic acid injection (OAI) yet. Oleic acid injection leads to severely impaired gas exchange, a deterioration of lung mechanics and disruption of the alveolo-capillary barrier. The OAI mimics most of the expected effects of ARDS consisting of extended inflammation of lung tissue with an increase of alveolar leakage and gas exchange impairment. A disadvantage of the combination of different models is the difficulty to determine the influence to the lung injury caused by BAL alone, OAI alone or both together. The model presented in this report represents the combination of BAL and OAI as a new double-hit lung injury model. This new model is easy to implement and an alternative to study different therapeutic approaches in ARDS in the future.

Standardized Hemorrhagic Shock Induction Guided by Cerebral Oximetry and Extended Hemodynamic Monitoring in Pigs.

Hemorrhagic shock ranks among the main reasons for severe injury-related death. The loss of circulatory volume and oxygen carriers can lead to an insufficient oxygen supply and irreversible organ failure. The brain exerts only limited compensation capacities and is particularly at high risk of severe hypoxic damage.This article demonstrates the reproducible induction of life-threatening hemorrhagic shock in a porcine model by means of calculated blood withdrawal. We titrate shock induction guided by near-infrared spectroscopy and extended hemodynamic monitoring to display systemic circulatory failure, as well as cerebral microcirculatory oxygen depletion. In comparison to similar models that primarily focus on predefined removal volumes for shock induction, this approach highlights a titration by means of the resulting failure of macro- and microcirculation.