Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles of Campylobacter spp. Isolated from Broiler Chicken Meat of Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Origin at Estonian Retail Level and from Patients with Severe Enteric Infections in Estonia.

The resistance patterns of Campylobacter spp. isolated from retail broiler chicken meat originating either from Estonia, Lithuania or Latvia collected in Estonia were determined. Additionally, in collaboration with the laboratories of several Estonian hospitals, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns were determined for Campylobacter isolates from patients with severe Campylobacter enteric infections. The isolates were identified at the species level by the PCR method. Respectively, 88.8% of the isolates were C. jejuni, and 11.2% were C. coli. In total, 126 Campylobacter isolates of broiler chicken meat and human origin were tested for minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) with the broth microdilution VetMIC(TH) method (National Veterinary Institute; Uppsala, Sweden) for a total of six antimicrobials. Resistance to one or more antimicrobials was detected in 62 (63.3%) of Campylobacter broiler chicken meat isolates and in 20 (71.4%) of human-origin isolates. Large proportions of the broiler chicken meat isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin (60.2%). Multidrug resistance (i.e. to three or more unrelated antimicrobials) was detected in five (5.1%) C. jejuni isolates. Among the human isolates, 20 (71.4%) were resistant to fluoroquinolones, and two (7.1%) C. jejuni isolates exhibited multidrug resistance. The chicken meat isolates of Estonian origin were the most susceptible. However, a high proportion of fluoroquinolone-resistant C. jejuni isolates were found in Latvian and Lithuanian products. The results of this study indicate that the problems caused by the inappropriate use of antimicrobials extend beyond the country in which a food originates; therefore, both domestic and international interventions and agreements are required to implement common policies on antimicrobial usage and to minimize the emergence of Campylobacter drug resistance.

Dynamics of nitrate and nitrite content during storage of home-made and small-scale industrially produced raw vegetable juices and their dietary intake.

The influence of storage conditions on nitrate and nitrite contents, pH, and total viable bacterial count of raw vegetable juices was studied. Three different types of juices from an Estonian small-scale producer and five different types of home-made juices were analysed. Analyses were performed immediately after opening the commercial juice packages and immediately after preparation of a home-made juice. Additionally, samples were taken after open storage of a juice at the refrigerator and ambient temperatures during 24 and 48 h. The biggest changes in nitrate and nitrite contents were found during storage of carrot, beetroot and radish juices. During 48 h of storage at ambient temperature, the mean increases of nitrite content in home-made carrot, beetroot and radish juices were from 0.1 to 187, from 2.1 to 578, and from 0.5 to 259 mg l(-1), respectively. In the case of commercial lightly pasteurized products, the biggest increase of nitrite content, from 3.2 to 11 mg l(-1), was found in red beetroot juice. After 48 h of storage at refrigerator temperature, the changes of nitrite and nitrate were smaller. In the case of consumption of 300 ml of home-made carrot juice, with a nitrate and nitrite content of 64 and 110 mg l(-1), respectively, stored for 24 h at ambient temperature, the average intake was 8% and 846% of the acceptable daily intake of nitrates and nitrites, respectively. After consumption of 50 ml of the same carrot juice by children (1-2 years of age) the average intake of nitrates and nitrites was 7% and 733% of the acceptable daily intake, respectively.

Nitrate in leafy vegetables, culinary herbs, and cucumber grown under cover in Estonia: content and intake.

The content of nitrate in leafy vegetables, culinary herbs, and cucumber was determined during the years 2006-2008. All samples of Estonian origin, except white cabbage, were grown under cover. Seasonal differences in nitrate concentrations were observed in lettuce and spinach. Nitrate concentrations in lettuce were 22% and those in spinach were 24% higher in winter crops compared with samples collected in summer. The mean nitrate level was 3023 mg kg(-1) for fresh lettuce and 2337 mg kg(-1) for spinach. On average, 11.6% of fresh lettuce and spinach samples nitrate concentration exceeded the maximum level specified in European Commission Regulation No. 1881/2006. The mean levels were 999 mg kg(-1) for imported iceberg lettuce and 1287 mg kg(-1) for frozen spinach, which are below the maximum European Commission limits. Parsley, dill, basil, thyme, and rucola contained high concentrations of nitrate from mean levels of 2134 mg kg(-1) for parsley up to 8150 mg kg(-1) for rucola. Mean nitrate concentrations ranged from 382 to 1115 mg kg(-1) for white cabbage and Chinese cabbage, respectively. The per capita mean daily intake of nitrates related to the consumption of leafy vegetables, culinary herbs, and cucumber for the whole Estonian population was 31.3 mg day(-1), which comprised 14.2% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI).

Impact of food processing and storage conditions on nitrate content in canned vegetable-based infant foods.

The nitrate and nitrite contents were determined in canned vegetable-based infant foods of five varieties. Furthermore, changes in nitrate content during industrial processing were studied. Samples were taken from raw materials, homogenized mixtures, and final products after sterilization, and then analyzed for nitrate and nitrite content by high-pressure liquid chromatography. Processing steps preceding heat treatment, such as vegetable peeling and washing, decreased the nitrate concentrations in the range of 17 to 52%. During processing, the nitrate content in canned infant foods decreased 39 to 50%, compared with nitrate concentration in the raw-vegetable mixture. The final nitrate concentration in infant foods depends mainly on the initial nitrate content of the raw-vegetable mixture. The effect of storage time (24 and 48 h) and temperature (4 to 6 degrees C and 20 to 22 degrees C) on nitrate and nitrite content in opened canned infant-food samples was studied. After 24 h of storage at refrigerated and room temperatures, the mean nitrate content increased on average by 7 and 13%, and after 48 h of storage by 15 and 29%, respectively. The nitrite content in all analyzed samples was below the quantification limit. Storage requirements of industrial manufacturers must be followed strictly. Opened can foods, stored under refrigerated conditions, have to be consumed within 2 days, as recommended by manufacturers. The infant-food producers must pay more attention to the quality of raw materials. Nitrate content analyses should be added as compulsory tests to the quality assurance programs.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in meat products and estimated PAH intake by children and the general population in Estonia.

The concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene and 11 other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were analysed from 322 commercial, cured meat products and 14 home-grilled meat samples as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme during 2001-2005. The maximum acceptable concentration of 5 microg kg(-1) for benzo[a]pyrene was exceeded in 3.4% of samples. The highest PAH concentrations were detected in home-grilled pork samples. Using of disposable grilling unit resulted in 1.6 times higher PAH concentrations compared to the traditional wood-burning grill. The average intake of benzo[a]pyrene and sum of 12 PAHs from meat products was estimated for children (age 1-16 years) on the basis of an individual food consumption questionnaire and, for the general population, based on national food consumption data. The highest total PAH concentrations detected were 16 microg kg(-1) in smoked meat and ham, 19 microg kg(-1) in smoked sausage and 6.5 microg kg(-1) in smoked chicken samples. Since smoking and grilling are prevalent meat-cooking methods in Estonia, the impact of meat products is assessed to be significant in overall PAH intake.

Nitrates and nitrites in vegetables and vegetable-based products and their intakes by the Estonian population.

The content of nitrates were determined in 1,349 samples of vegetables and ready-made food in 2003-2004 as a part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme and the Estonian Science Foundation grant research activities. The results of manufacturers' analyses carried out for internal monitoring were included in the study. The highest mean values of nitrates were detected in dill, spinach, lettuce and beet root. The mean concentrations were 2,936, 2,508, 2,167 and 1,446 mg kg(-1), respectively. The content of nitrites in samples was lower than 5 mg kg(-1). In total, the mean intake of nitrates by the Estonian population was 58 mg day(-1). The mean content of nitrates in vegetable-based infant foods of Estonian origin was 88 mg kg(-1). The average daily intake of nitrates by children in the age group of 4-6 years was 30 mg. The infants' average daily intake of nitrates from consumption of vegetable-based foods was 7.8 mg.

Nitrites, nitrates and N-nitrosoamines in Estonian cured meat products: intake by Estonian children and adolescents.

The contents of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines in commercial cured meat products on the Estonian market were determined for 2000-01 and 2003-04 as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme and the Estonian Science Foundation grant research activities. The maximum permitted levels of residual nitrites and nitrates were not exceeded in the samples analysed. However, a great variation in the content of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines was found for all the products. The concentrations of these compounds in domestic cured meat products showed a decrease from year to year. The mean intake of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines by Estonian children (n=346) from cured meat products was calculated on the basis of individual intake data. The mean daily intake of nitrates was 1.7 mg, that of nitrites was 0.83 mg and that of N-nitrosoamines was 0.073 microg. In the 2000-01 study, the calculated nitrite intake exceeded the acceptable daily intake by up to 140% for 1-6-year-old children and up to 105% in 2003-04.