A simple, reproducible substrate for studying biofilms in aquatic environments.

In this paper we present a simple in expensive substrate for studying biofilms. Bioballs are robust plastic spheres with high surface area to volume ratios (ca 130:1) used in home aquarium filters. Their properties make them ideal substrates for use in studies of aquatic biofilms. As examples, in this paper we describe the growth and enzyme activities of biofilms grown on these substrates and explore the interaction between DOC concentration and biofilm biomass. Biofilm growth and activity on the bioballs was very reproducible. For example maximum biofilm growth following approximately 3 months inundation was estimated to be 40 (+/- 3.6) mg protein and 120 (+/- 11) microg chlorophyll a per bioball.

Seed predation by insects in tropical mangrove forests: extent and effects on seed viability and the growth of seedlings.

Although insects are known to be important seed predators in most terrestrial forests, their role in marine tidal (mangrove) forests has not been examined. Surveys at 12 sites in tropical Australia showed that between 3.1 and 92.7 percent of the seeds or propagules of 12 mangrove tree species had been attacked by insects. Seeds/propagules of six species (Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Heritiera littoralis, Xylocarpus australasicus and X. granatum) showed consistently high (>40%) levels of insect damage. Greater than 99% of H. littoralis seeds were attacked by insect predators. The survival and subsequent growth in height and biomass of insect-damaged and non-damaged control seeds/propagules of eight mangrove species were compared in shadehouse experiments. Mangrove species fell into 4 groups with regard to the effect of insect predators on their seeds and seedlings. Xylocarpus australasicus and X. granatum had significantly decreased survival (X 48 and 70%) and growth in height (X 61 and 96%) and biomass (X 66 and 85%). Bruguiera parviflora showed decreased survival (X 59%), but there was no effect of insects on the growth of surviving propagules. In contrast, there was no effect of insect damage on the survival of seedlings of Avicennia marina and Bruguiera exaristata, but decreased growth in height (X 22 and 25%) and biomass (X 22 and 26%). Survival and growth of seedlings of Rhizophora stylosa and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza were not affected. The influence of insect seed predators on the survival and growth of seeds of mangrove species in forests will depend on the relative abundance of seed-eating crabs and intertidal position in mangrove forests.

The influence of crabs on litter processing in high intertidal mangrove forests in tropical Australia.

Measurements of litter fall and litter removal by crabs, in conjunction with estimates of litter decay by microbes and tidal export of litter from three high-intertidal mangrove forests were made during a year-long study in tropical northeastern Australia. In forests dominated by Ceriops tagal and Bruguiera exaristata, litter standing stocks remained low on the forest floor (mean 6 g·m-2), although litter fall was high; 822 and 1022 g·m-2·y-1, respectively. Sesarmid crabs removed 580 (Ceriops) and 803 (Bruguiera) g·m-2·y-1, or 71 and 79%, of the total annual litter fall from the forest floor. Relative to the rate of litter removal by crabs, microbial turnover of whole, unshredded litter was insignificant, accounting for <1% of annual litter fall. Export of litter by tides was estimated to remove 194 (Ceriops) and 252 (Bruguiera) g·m-2·y-1 or 24 and 25% of annual litter fall. In a forest dominated by Avicenniamarina, in which an ocypodid crab was more abundant than sesarmids, litter standing stocks were higher (mean 84 g·m-2) and crabs removed less litter; 173 g·m-2·y-1 or 33% of the annual litter fall of 519 g·m-2·y-1. Microbial turnover of intact litter was more important in the Avicennia forest (168 g·m-2·y-1 or 32% of annual litter fall), and tides exported 107 g·m-2·y-1 or 21% of litter production. In areas where sesarmid crabs were absent or rare in Ceriops forests, there were significantly higher standing stocks of litter and slower rates of leaf removal. Taking into account the probable assimilation efficiencies of sesarmid crabs feeding on mangrove leaves, we estimate that in Ceriops and Bruguiera forests leaf processing by crabs turns litter over at >75 times the rate of microbial decay alone, thus facilitating the high sediment bacterial productivity in these forests. The importance of litter processing by crabs increases with height in the intertidal in tropical Australia, in contrast to New World mangrove forests, where the reverse is true.