Mitigating antimicrobial resistance (AMR) using implementation research: a development funder's approach.

Despite the escalating burden of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), the global response has not sufficiently matched the scale and scope of the issue, especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). While many countries have adopted national action plans to combat AMR, their implementation has lagged due to resource constraints, dysfunctional multisectoral coordination mechanisms and, importantly, an under-recognized lack of technical capacity to adapt evidence-based AMR mitigation interventions to local contexts. AMR interventions should be tailored, context-specific, cost-effective and sustainable. The implementation and subsequent scale-up of these interventions require multidisciplinary intervention-implementation research (IIR). IIR involves both quantitative and qualitative approaches, occurs across a three-phase continuum (proof of concept, proof of implementation and informing scale-up), and across four context domains (inner setting, outer setting, stakeholders and the implementation process). We describe the theoretical underpinnings of implementation research (IR), its various components, and how to construct different IR strategies to facilitate sustainable uptake of AMR interventions. Additionally, we provide real-world examples of AMR strategies and interventions to demonstrate these principles in practice. IR provides a practical framework to implement evidence-based and sustainable AMR mitigation interventions.

Optimization of HPLC-MS/MS method for determination of antimalarial adulterants in herbal products.

The use of herbal products is booming all over the world because of being believed as safer than conventional drugs and free of side effects. However, there are untrustworthy manufacturers who adulterate herbal products by adding conventional drugs which might eventually lead to microbial resistance and herb-to-drug interactions. There is a need to develop methods for detecting adulterants in herbal products. A high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method for simultaneous identification and determination of conventional antimalarials (chloroquine, quinine, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, mefloquine, lumefantrine, amodiaquine, artemisinin, dihydroartemisinin, artesunate and artemether) in herbal products was developed. Stable isotopically labelled compounds (artemether-d3, quindine-d3, and sulfadoxine-d3) were used as internal standards (ISs) for quantitative analysis. Extraction of analytes was performed using methanol: water: formic acid (90:10:0.1, v/v) and chromatographic separation was done in a gradient mode using mobile phase A: Ultrapure water containing 0.1% formic acid and 1 mM ammonium formate and mobile phase B: Acetonitrile/methanol (50:50) containing 0.1% formic acid and 1 mM ammonium formate. The calibration curves were linear (r2 ≥ 0.991) over the range of 0.001-0.3 µg mL-1 for all compounds. The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 0.002 to 0.02 µg mL-1 while the limit of quantification (LOQ) ranged from 0.006 to 0.08 µg mL-1. Accuracy, expressed as recovery of spiked herbal products ranged from 52 to 128%. The precision, expressed as percent relative standard deviation (%RSD) at two concentration levels, ranged from 1.0 to 13.8%. The matrix effect expressed as the matrix factor (MF) ranged from 0.77 to 0.97. The developed method was used to identify and quantify conventional antimalarials in herbal product samples from Tanzania. Ten out of 50 herbal products were found to contain amodiaquine, sulfadoxine, pyrimethamine, mefloquine, dihydroartemisinin, artemether and lumefantrine. The developed method is considered a valuable tool for getting a better understanding of the adulteration of conventional antimalarials in herbal products.

Using a mechanistic framework to model the density of an aquatic parasite Ceratonova shasta.

Ceratonova shasta is a myxozoan parasite endemic to the Pacific Northwest of North America that is linked to low survival rates of juvenile salmonids in some watersheds such as the Klamath River basin. The density of C. shasta actinospores in the water column is typically highest in the spring (March-June), and directly influences infection rates for outmigrating juvenile salmonids. Current management approaches require quantities of C. shasta density to assess disease risk and estimate survival of juvenile salmonids. Therefore, we developed a model to simulate the density of waterborne C. shasta actinospores using a mechanistic framework based on abiotic drivers and informed by empirical data. The model quantified factors that describe the key features of parasite abundance during the period of juvenile salmon outmigration, including the week of initial detection (onset), seasonal pattern of spore density, and peak density of C. shasta. Spore onset was simulated by a bio-physical degree-day model using the timing of adult salmon spawning and accumulation of thermal units for parasite development. Normalized spore density was simulated by a quadratic regression model based on a parabolic thermal response with river water temperature. Peak spore density was simulated based on retained explanatory variables in a generalized linear model that included the prevalence of infection in hatchery-origin Chinook juveniles the previous year and the occurrence of flushing flows (≥171 m3/s). The final model performed well, closely matched the initial detections (onset) of spores, and explained inter-annual variations for most water years. Our C. shasta model has direct applications as a management tool to assess the impact of proposed flow regimes on the parasite, and it can be used for projecting the effects of alternative water management scenarios on disease-induced mortality of juvenile salmonids such as with an altered water temperature regime or with dam removal.

A vegetation classification and description of white-winged flufftail (Sarothrura ayresi) habitat at selected high-altitude peatlands in South Africa.

The white-winged flufftail is listed as critically endangered, and limited knowledge about the species' ecology has been identified as a limiting factor to effectively conserving the bird. Little is known about the vegetation inhabited by the white-winged flufftail, which hampers the identification and management of its habitat. This study presents a fine-scale classification and description of the vegetation of wetland sites where the bird is known to be present. A plant phytosociological study was conducted to describe the plant communities and vegetation structure of the habitat. Three sites were selected at Verloren Valei Nature Reserve and two at Middelpunt Wetland, Mpumalanga, South Africa, shortly after the white-winged flufftail breeding season. A total of 60 sample plots were placed within the study sites, where all plant species present were recorded and identified. Other aspects such as plant height, water depth and anthropogenic influences were also documented. A modified TWINSPAN analysis resulted in the identification of three sub-communities that can be grouped into one major community. The Cyperaceae, Asteraceae and Poaceae families dominate the vegetation, with the sedges Carex austro-africana and Cyperus denudatus being dominant, and the grasses Leersia hexandra and Arundinella nepalensis co-dominant. The broad habitat structure consisted of medium to tall herbaceous plants (0.5-0.7 m) with shallow slow-flowing water.

Enhancing the learning and supervision framework for training in flexible endoscopic evaluation of swallowing.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This article reviews the literature on the development of competency-based training and assessment in endoscopy, comparing gastrointestinal endoscopy and flexible endoscopic evaluation of swallowing (FEES). The discussion focusses on how a robust and explicit learning framework can be translated to the delivery of training in FEES to optimize trainee outcomes and supervisor skill. RECENT FINDINGS: Specialist Speech and Language Therapists (SLT) carry out FEES to inform the diagnosis and management of swallowing and voice disorders. Taught courses are generally followed by local workplace-based supervised practice to attain the competencies identified in the relevant professional guidelines. However, the curriculum for the workplace-based FEES training lacks a learning and assessment framework and little direction for the workplace-based supervisor. In gastrointestinal endoscopy training, this previously led to less than optimal outcomes for trainees and patients and so new models of training were developed. SUMMARY: A new learning framework for FEES underpinned by medical pedagogy has shown early promise in supporting the acquisition of competence. Incorporating a new FEES-specific systematic assessment, the framework provides direction for the supervisor and evidence of trainee progression, which subsequently enhances supervisor confidence to determine trainee competence.

Scaling and development of elastic mechanisms: the tiny strikes of larval mantis shrimp.

Latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA) is used by small organisms to produce high acceleration movements. Mathematical models predict that acceleration increases as LaMSA systems decrease in size. Adult mantis shrimp use a LaMSA mechanism in their raptorial appendages to produce extremely fast strikes. Until now, however, it was unclear whether mantis shrimp at earlier life-history stages also strike using elastic recoil and latch mediation. We tested whether larval mantis shrimp (Gonodactylaceus falcatus) use LaMSA and, because of their smaller size, achieve higher strike accelerations than adults of other mantis shrimp species. Based on microscopy and kinematic analyses, we discovered that larval G. falcatus possess the components of, and actively use, LaMSA during their fourth larval stage, which is the stage of development when larvae begin feeding. Larvae performed strikes at high acceleration and speed (mean: 4.133×105 rad s-2, 292.7 rad s-1; 12 individuals, 25 strikes), which are of the same order of magnitude as for adults - even though adult appendages are up to two orders of magnitude longer. Larval strike speed (mean: 0.385 m s-1) exceeded the maximum swimming speed of similarly sized organisms from other species by several orders of magnitude. These findings establish the developmental timing and scaling of the mantis shrimp LaMSA mechanism and provide insights into the kinematic consequences of scaling limits in tiny elastic mechanisms.

Antimicrobial Use, Residues, Resistance and Governance in the Food and Agriculture Sectors, Tanzania.

All infections are potentially curable as long as the etiological agents are susceptible to antimicrobials. The increased rate at which antimicrobials are becoming ineffective is a global health risk of increasing concern that threatens withdrawal of beneficial antimicrobials for disease control. The increased demand for food of animal origin, in particular eggs, meat and milk has led to intensification and commercial production systems where excessive use and misuse of antimicrobials may prevail. Antimicrobials, handled and used by farmers and animal attendants with no formal education, may be predisposed to incorrect dosages, misuse, incorrect applications and non-adherence to withdrawal periods. This study was conducted to assess the regulatory roles and governance of antimicrobials, establish the pattern and extent of their use, evaluate the antimicrobial residues and resistance in the food animals and crop agriculture value chains, and relate these findings to existing strategies in place for combating the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in Tanzania. A multimethod approach (desk review, field study and interviews) was used. Relevant establishments were also visited. High levels of resistance to penicillin G, chloramphenicol, streptomycin and oxytetracycline have been reported, especially for Actinobacter pyogenes, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus intermedius and Staphylococcus aureus from dairy cattle with mastitis and in humans. Similar trends were found in poultry where eggs and meat are contaminated with Escherichia coli strains resistant to amoxicillin + clavulanate, sulphamethoxazole and neomycin. An increasing trend of emerging multidrug resistant E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella was also found in food animals. An increase in methicillin resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) in the livestock sector in Tanzania have been reported. The pathogens isolated in animals were resistant to ampicillin, augmentin, gentamicin, co-trimoxazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, streptomycin, nalidixic acid, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, tylosin, erythromycin, cefuroxime, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. An increased usage of antimicrobials for prophylaxis, and therapeutics against pathogens and for growth promotion in livestock, aquaculture and crop production were observed. A One Health strategic approach is advocated to combat antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the food and agriculture sectors in Tanzania. Practical recommendations include (a) legislation review and implementation; (b) antimicrobial use (AMU), AMR and antimicrobial residue (AR) awareness and advocacy among stakeholders along the value chain; (c) strengthening of surveillance and monitoring programs for AMU, AMR and AR; (d) enhanced development and use of rapid and innovative diagnostic tests and the promotion of biosecurity principles; and (e) good husbandry practices. The utilization of this information to improve public health policies and reduce the burden of AMR will be beneficial.

A case of paramyotonia congenita in pregnancy.

Paramyotonia congenita is a rare autosomal dominant non-dystrophic myopathy caused by mutations in the SNC4A gene, which encodes for the voltage-gated sodium channel in skeletal muscle. Symptom onset is typically during early childhood and is characterised by myotonia followed by flaccid paralysis or weakness, usually exacerbated by repeated muscle contractions or cold temperatures. Pregnancy has been reported to increase symptoms of myotonia; however, there is limited information in the literature regarding the possible effects of paramyotonia congenita on pregnancy and labour. We present a successful case of a 20-year-old primigravida with confirmed paramyotonia congenita and review the literature regarding paramyotonia congenita during pregnancy.

Neck pain patterns and subgrouping based on weekly SMS-derived trajectories.

BACKGROUND: Neck and low back pain represent dynamic conditions that change over time, often with an initial improvement after the onset of a new episode, followed by flare-ups or variations in intensity. Pain trajectories were previously defined based on longitudinal studies of temporal patterns and pain intensity of individuals with low back pain. In this study, we aimed to 1) investigate if the defined patterns and subgroups for low back pain were applicable to neck pain patients in chiropractic practice, 2) explore the robustness of the defined patterns, and 3) investigate if patients within the various patterns differ concerning characteristics and clinical findings. METHODS: Prospective cohort study including 1208 neck pain patients from chiropractic practice. Patients responded to weekly SMS-questions about pain intensity and frequency over 43 weeks. We categorized individual responses into four main patterns based on number of days with pain and variations in pain intensity, and subdivided each into four subgroups based on pain intensity, resulting in 16 trajectory subgroups. We compared baseline characteristics and clinical findings between patterns and between Persistent fluctuating and Episodic subgroups. RESULTS: All but two patients could be classified into one of the 16 subgroups, with 94% in the Persistent fluctuating or Episodic patterns. In the largest subgroup, "Mild Persistent fluctuating" (25%), mean (SD) pain intensity was 3.4 (0.6) and mean days with pain 130. Patients grouped as "Moderate Episodic" (24%) reported a mean pain intensity of 2.7 (0.6) and 39 days with pain. Eight of the 16 subgroups each contained less than 1% of the cohort. Patients in the Persistent fluctuating pattern scored higher than the other patterns in terms of reduced function and psychosocial factors. CONCLUSIONS: The same subgroups seem to fit neck and low back pain patients, with pain that typically persists and varies in intensity or is episodic. Patients in a Persistent fluctuating pattern are more bothered by their pain than those in other patterns. The low back pain definitions can be used on patients with neck pain, but with the majority of patients classified into 8 subgroups, there seems to be a redundancy in the original model.

Biallelic variants in PPP1R13L cause paediatric dilated cardiomyopathy.

Childhood dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a leading cause of heart failure requiring cardiac transplantation and approximately 5% of cases result in sudden death. Knowledge of the underlying genetic cause can aid prognostication and clinical management and enables accurate recurrence risk counselling for the family. Here we used genomic sequencing to identify the causative genetic variant(s) in families with children affected by severe DCM. In an international collaborative effort facilitated by GeneMatcher, biallelic variants in PPP1R13L were identified in seven children with severe DCM from five unrelated families following exome or genome sequencing and inheritance-based variant filtering. PPP1R13L encodes inhibitor of apoptosis-stimulating protein of p53 protein (iASPP). In addition to roles in apoptosis, iASPP acts as a regulator of desmosomes and has been implicated in inflammatory pathways. DCM presented early (mean: 2 years 10 months; range: 3 months-9 years) and was progressive, resulting in death (n = 3) or transplant (n = 3), with one child currently awaiting transplant. Genomic sequencing technologies are valuable for the identification of novel and emerging candidate genes. Biallelic variants in PPP1R13L were previously reported in a single consanguineous family with paediatric DCM. The identification here of a further five families now provides sufficient evidence to support a robust gene-disease association between PPP1R13L and severe paediatric DCM. The PPP1R13L gene should be included in panel-based genetic testing for paediatric DCM.

Genome-Based Analysis of Extended-Spectrum ß-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli in the Aquatic Environment and Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) of Lake Victoria, Tanzania.

Extended-spectrum ß-lactamase (ESBL)-producing bacteria constitute an emerging global health issue with food products being vehicles of transmission and the aquatic environments serving as potential reservoirs. This study aimed to characterize ESBL-producing Escherichia coli in Nile perch and water from Lake Victoria in Tanzania. A total of 180 samples of Nile perch and 60 water samples were screened for ESBL-producing E. coli on MacConkey agar supplemented with 2 µg/ml of cefotaxime and confirmed by bla CTX-M and bla TEM PCR. Antimicrobial resistance was determined by the disk diffusion method, and the ESBL-producing isolates were whole genome sequencing (WGS). ESBL-producing E. coli were detected in eight of the 180 analyzed Nile perch samples, and only one water sample was positive (1.7%, n = 60). Isolates were resistant to sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (100%), ampicillin/cloxacillin (100%), erythromycin 72.7% (8/11), tetracycline 90.9% (10/11), and nalidixic acid 63.6% (7/11). This mostly corroborates the resistance genes that they carried for sulfonamides (sul1 and sul2), trimethoprim (dfrA and dfrB), aminoglycosides [aac(3)-IId, strA, and strB], tetracycline [tet(B) and tet(D)], and fluoroquinolones (qepA4). They harbored plasmid replicon types IncF, IncX, IncQ, and Col and carried bla CTX-M- 15 and bla TEM- 1 B genes generally found on the same contigs as the IncF plasmid replicon. Although epidemiologically unrelated, the strains formed three separate sequence type-phylogroup-serotype-specific clusters: C1, C2, and C3. Cluster C1 included five strains (3 to 13 SNPs) belonging to ST167, phylogroup A, and serotype O9:H21; the two C2 strains (11 SNPs) belong to ST156, phylogroup B1, and serotype ONT:H28; and C3 was made up of four strains (SNPs ranged from 4 to 17) of ST636, phylogroup B2, and serotype O45:H7. The common virulence gene gad was reported in all strains. In addition, strains in C2 and C3 possessed iss, lpfA, and nfaE virulence genes, and the vat gene was found only in C3. The present study reports the occurrence of multidrug-resistant ESBL-producing E. coli carrying plasmid-mediated ESBL genes in offshore water and Nile perch in Lake Victoria. Strains formed three clonal clusters of unknown origin. This study reveals that the Lake may serve as reservoir for ESBL-producing bacteria that can be transmitted by fish as a food chain hazard of One-Health concern.

Lipid mechanisms in hallmarks of cancer.

Excess adiposity is a risk factor for several cancer types. This is likely due to complex mechanisms including alterations in the lipid milieu that plays a pivotal role in multiple aspects of carcinogenesis. Here we consider the direct role of lipids in regulating well-known hallmarks of cancer. Furthermore, we suggest that obesity-associated remodelling of membranes and organelles drives cancer cell proliferation and invasion. Identification of cancer-related lipid-mediated mechanisms amongst the broad metabolic disturbances due to excess adiposity is central to the identification of novel and more efficacious prevention and intervention strategies.

Genomic insights into Vibrio cholerae O1 responsible for cholera epidemics in Tanzania between 1993 and 2017.

BACKGROUND: Tanzania is one of seven countries with the highest disease burden caused by cholera in Africa. We studied the evolution of Vibrio cholerae O1 isolated in Tanzania during the past three decades. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Genome-wide analysis was performed to characterize V. cholerae O1 responsible for the Tanzanian 2015-2017 outbreak along with strains causing outbreaks in the country for the past three decades. The genomes were further analyzed in a global context of 590 strains of the seventh cholera pandemic (7PET), as well as environmental isolates from Lake Victoria. All Tanzanian cholera outbreaks were caused by the 7PET lineage. The T5 sub-lineage (ctxB3) dominated outbreaks until 1997, followed by the T10 atypical El Tor (ctxB1) up to 2015, which were replaced by the T13 atypical El Tor of the current third wave (ctxB7) causing most cholera outbreaks until 2017 with T13 being phylogenetically related to strains from East African countries, Yemen and Lake Victoria. The strains were less drug resistant with approximate 10-kb deletions found in the SXT element, which encodes resistance to sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim. Nucleotide deletions were observed in the CTX prophage of some strains, which warrants further virulence studies. Outbreak strains share 90% of core genes with V. cholerae O1 from Lake Victoria with as low as three SNPs difference and a significantly similar accessory genome, composed of genomic islands namely the CTX prophage, Vibrio Pathogenicity Islands; toxin co-regulated pilus biosynthesis proteins and the SXT-ICE element. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE: Characterization of V. cholerae O1 from Tanzania reveals genetic diversity of the 7PET lineage composed of T5, T10 and T13 sub-lineages with introductions of new sequence types from neighboring countries. The presence of these sub-lineages in environmental isolates suggests that the African Great Lakes may serve as aquatic reservoirs for survival of V. cholerae O1 favoring continuous human exposure.

Levels and distribution of progesterone in receiving waters and wastewaters of a growing urban area.

This study aimed at investigating the levels and distribution of progesterone in receiving waters and wastewaters in Arusha, a fast-growing urban area and the third largest city in Tanzania. Specifically, the study was conducted along the Themi River and the adjacent waste stabilization ponds (WSPs). Progesterone was detected and quantified by using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. For Themi River samples, the level of progesterone obtained ranged from 'no detection' to 439 ng/L with a mean value of 120.3 ng/L. The levels detected were significantly higher in the midstream than the upstream and downstream sections of the river (P<0.05). The higher values at the midstream were attributable to livestock, WSPs and household effluents; agricultural activities; and sewage infiltration. Progesterone levels in the present study, although not extremely high, correspond to those associated with harmful effects in other studies. Results for samples collected from the WSPs indicated a release of 215 ng progesterone per L of the receiving waters. Although progesterone removal efficiency by the WSPs was 75%, the amount released was still high enough to cause harm to aquatic organisms. Thus, more efficient techniques are required to adequately remove progesterone to the recommended levels.

Cholera hotspots and surveillance constraints contributing to recurrent epidemics in Tanzania.

OBJECTIVE: We described the dynamics of cholera in Tanzania between 2007 and 2017 and assessed the weaknesses of the current surveillance system in providing necessary data in achieving the global roadmap to 2030 for cholera control. RESULTS: The Poisson-based spatial scan identified cholera hotspots in mainland Tanzania. A zero-inflated Poisson regression investigated the relationship between the incidence of cholera and available demographic, socio-economic and climatic exposure variables. Four cholera hotspots were detected covering 17 regions, home to 28 million people, including the central regions and those surrounding the Lakes Victoria, Tanganyika and Nyaza. The risk of experiencing cholera in these regions was up to 2.9 times higher than elsewhere in the country. Regression analyses revealed that every 100 km of water perimeter in a region increased the cholera incidence by 1.5%. Due to the compilation of surveillance data at regional level rather than at district, we were unable to reliably identify any other significant risk factors and specific hotspots. Cholera high-risk populations in Tanzania include those living near lakes and central regions. Successful surveillance require disaggregated data available weekly and at district levels in order to serve as data for action to support the roadmap for cholera control.

Phenotypic and molecular detection of Aeromonads infection in farmed Nile tilapia in Southern highland and Northern Tanzania.

Aeromonads disease outbreaks are now becoming a common phenomenon in freshwater farmed fish worldwide. In Tanzania, the aquaculture field is increasingly growing save to sustain food protein demand and strengthen household income. To avoid losses that tilapia fish farmers might account, information on magnitude of infection and characteristics of the aetiological agent is vital. This study aimed to establish the prevalence of aeromonads infection in farmed tilapia and assess pond and fish health management practices. A cross sectional study was carried out between February 2017 and October 2018 and a total of 816 whole fish samples were aseptically collected from 32 ponds in Ruvuma, Mbeya, Iringa and Kilimanjaro regions. During sampling, water quality parameters were taken and questionnaires to assess the knowledge of farmers were also provided. Isolation and identification of bacteria was conducted using conventional biotyping and molecular techniques. A total of 201 (80.4%) of 250 isolates that were conventionally identified were confirmed to be aeromonads by amplification of 820 bp rpoD gene, making the overall prevalence of 24.6% (201, n = 816). Sequencing of rpoD gene and phylogenetic analysis revealed two aeromonads species, Aeromonas hydrophila and Aeromonas veronii. To the best of our knowledge this is the first report to establish the prevalence of aeromonads in apparently healthy farmed tilapia in Southern highlands and Northern zone of Tanzania. In addition it was observed that farmers were lacking proper knowledge and awareness on pond management practices and fish health management. In conclusion, the infection rate of aeromonads in apparently health tilapia coupled with lack of proper knowledge and awareness on pond and fish health management by fish farmers in the study area poses risk of diseases outbreaks in their farms in future. Therefore, it is recommended that the farmers should be trained on basic pond and fish health management and control strategies.

Current State of Modern Biotechnological-Based Aeromonas hydrophila Vaccines for Aquaculture: A Systematic Review.

This systematic review describes what "the cutting edge vaccines for Aeromonas hydrophila are". The focus is on types of high tech biotechnological based vaccines, target gene or antigen in developing these vaccines, and challenge model fish species used in vaccines efficacy testing. Vaccines delivery methods, immune response, and their efficacy, adjuvant or carrier systems used, and the overall experimental setup or design of the vaccines under investigation are also described. The search for the original papers published between 2009 and 2018 was conducted in June of 2018, using the PubMed and Google scholar electronic database. Twenty-three (23/4386) studies were included in the final assembly using PRISMA guidelines (Protocol not registered). Recombinant protein vaccines were the highly experimented type of the modern biotechnological based vaccines identified in the selected studies (16/23; 70%). Outer membrane proteins (OMPs) of different ß-barrels were shown to be a potential antigenic entity for A. hydrophila vaccines (57%). Intraperitoneal route with conventional carries or adjuvants was the highly applied delivery system while very few studies used herbal based vaccine adjuvants and nanomaterial as a vaccine carrier. Variation was observed in terms of protection levels in the selected studies. The experimental designs partly contributed to the observed variation. Therefore, recombinant vaccines that use new carrier system technologies and delivered through oral route in feeds would have been of great value for use in the prevention and control of A. hydrophila infections in fish. Despite the usefulness as academic tools to identify what is important in pathogenicity of the etiological agent to the host fish, these vaccines are only economically viable in very high-value animals. Therefore, if vaccination is a good option for A. hydrophila group, then simple autogenous vaccines based on accurate typing and evidence-based definition of the epidemiological unit for their use would be the most viable approach in terms of both efficacy and economic feasibility especially in low and middle-income countries (LMIC).

Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as a Putative Reservoir Host for Survival and Transmission of Vibrio cholerae O1 Biotype El Tor in the Aquatic Environment.

Studies have reported the occurrence of Vibrio cholerae in fish but little is known about the interaction between fish and toxigenic V. cholerae as opposed to phytoplankton, which are well-established aquatic reservoirs for V. cholerae. The present study determined the role of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) as a reservoir host for survival and transmission of V. cholerae in aquatic environments. Three experiments were performed with one repetition each, where O. niloticus (∼2 g) kept in beakers were inoculated with four V. cholerae strains (5 × 107 cfu/mL). Firstly, infected tilapia were kept in stagnant water and fed live brine shrimp (Artemia salina) larvae daily. Secondly, infected tilapia were kept without feeding and water was changed every 24 h. Thirdly, infected tilapia were fed and water was renewed daily. Infected tilapia and non-infected controls were sacrificed on days 1, 2, 3, 7, and 14 post-inoculation and V. cholerae were enumerated in intestinal content and water. Another experiment assessed the transmission of V. cholerae from infected to non-infected tilapia. The study revealed that El Tor biotype V. cholerae O1 and V. cholerae non-O1 colonized tilapia intestines and persisted at stable concentrations during the second week of the experiment whereas the Classical biotype was undetectable after 1 week. In stagnant water with feeding, V. cholerae counts dropped to 105 cfu/ml in water and from 107 to 104 cfu/intestine in fish after 14 days. When water was renewed, counts in water decreased from 107 to 103 cfu/ml and intestinal counts went from 106 to 102 cfu/intestine regardless of feeding. All strains were transmitted from infected to naïve fish after 24 h of cohabitation. Tilapia like other fish may play an essential role in the survival and dissemination of V. cholerae O1 in aquatic environments, e.g., the seventh pandemic strains mostly. In this study, tilapia were exposed to high concentrations of V. cholerae to ensure initial uptake and follow-up studies with lower doses resembling natural concentrations of V. cholerae in the aquatic environment are needed to confirm our findings.

Surveillance and Genomics of Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 From Fish, Phytoplankton and Water in Lake Victoria, Tanzania.

The occurrence of toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1 during a non- outbreak period in Lake Victoria was studied and genetic characteristics for environmental persistence and relatedness to pandemic strains were assessed. We analyzed 360 samples of carps, phytoplankton and water collected in 2017 during dry and rainy seasons in the Tanzanian basin of Lake Victoria. Samples were tested using PCR (ompW and ctxA) with DNA extracted from bacterial isolates and samples enriched in alkaline peptone water. Isolates were screened with polyvalent antiserum O1 followed by antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Whole genome sequencing and bioinformatics tools were employed to investigate the genomic characteristics of the isolates. More V. cholerae positive samples were recovered by PCR when DNA was obtained from enriched samples than from isolates (69.0% vs. 21.3%, p < 0.05), irrespectively of season. We identified ten V. cholerae O1 among 22 ctxA-positive isolates. Further studies are needed to serotype the remaining ctxA-positive non-O1 strains. Sequenced strains belonged to El Tor atypical biotype of V. cholerae O1 of MLST ST69 harboring the seventh pandemic gene. Major virulence genes, ctxA, ctxB, zot, ace, tcpA, hlyA, rtxA, ompU, toxR, T6SS, alsD, makA and pathogenicity islands VPI-1, VPI-2, VSP-1, and VSP-2 were found in all strains. The strains contained Vibrio polysaccharide biosynthesis enzymes, the mshA gene and two-component response regulator proteins involved in stress response and autoinducers for quorum sensing and biofilm formation. They carried the SXT integrative conjugative element with phenotypic and genotypic resistance to aminoglycoside, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, phenicol, and quinolones. Strains contained a multidrug efflux pump component and were resistant to toxic compounds with copper homeostasis and cobalt-zinc-cadmium resistance proteins. The environmental strains belonged to the third wave of the seventh pandemic and most are genetically closely related to recent outbreak strains from Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda with as low as three SNPs difference. Some strains have persisted longer in the environment and were more related to older outbreak strains in the region. V. cholerae O1 of outbreak potential seem to persist in Lake Victoria through interactions with fish and phytoplankton supported by the optimum water parameters and intrinsic genetic features enhancing survival in the aquatic environment.

Going with the flow: hydrodynamic cues trigger directed escapes from a stalking predator.

In the coevolution of predator and prey, different and less well-understood rules for threat assessment apply to freely suspended organisms than to substrate-dwelling ones. Particularly vulnerable are small prey carried with the bulk movement of a surrounding fluid and thus deprived of sensory information within the bow waves of approaching predators. Some planktonic prey have solved this apparent problem, however. We quantified cues generated by the slow approach of larval clownfish ( Amphiprion ocellaris) that triggered a calanoid copepod ( Bestiolina similis) to escape before the fish could strike. To estimate water deformation around the copepod immediately preceding its jump, we represented the body of the fish as a rigid sphere in a hydrodynamic model that we parametrized with measurements of fish size, approach speed and distance to the copepod. Copepods of various developmental stages (CII-CVI) were sensitive to the water flow caused by the live predator, at deformation rates as low as 0.04 s-1. This rate is far lower than that predicted from experiments that used artificial predator-mimics. Additionally, copepods localized the source, with 87% of escapes directed away (greater than or equal to 90°) from the predator. Thus, copepods' survival in life-threatening situations relied on their detection of small nonlinear signals within an environment of locally linear deformation.