Polyarginine Interacts More Strongly and Cooperatively than Polylysine with Phospholipid Bilayers.

The interactions of two highly positively charged short peptide sequences with negatively charged lipid bilayers were explored by fluorescence binding assays and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations. The bilayers consisted of mixtures of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) lipids as well as a fluorescence probe that was sensitive to the interfacial potential. The first peptide contained nine arginine repeats (Arg9), and the second one had nine lysine repeats (Lys9). The experimentally determined apparent dissociation constants and Hill cooperativity coefficients demonstrated that the Arg9 peptides exhibited weakly anticooperative binding behavior at the bilayer interface at lower PG concentrations, but this anticooperative effect vanished once the bilayers contained at least 20 mol % PG. By contrast, Lys9 peptides showed strongly anticooperative binding behavior at all PG concentrations, and the dissociation constants with Lys9 were approximately 2 orders of magnitude higher than with Arg9. Moreover, only arginine-rich peptides could bind to the phospholipid bilayers containing just PC lipids. These results along with the corresponding molecular dynamics simulations suggested two important distinctions between the behavior of Arg9 and Lys9 that led to these striking differences in binding and cooperativity. First, the interactions of the guanidinium moieties on the Arg side chains with the phospholipid head groups were stronger than for the amino group. This helped facilitate stronger Arg9 binding at all PG concentrations that were tested. However, at PG concentrations of 20 mol % or greater, the Arg9 peptides came into sufficiently close proximity with each other so that favorable like-charge pairing between the guanidinium moieties could just offset the long-range electrostatic repulsions. This led to Arg9 aggregation at the bilayer surface. By contrast, Lys9 molecules experienced electrostatic repulsion from each other at all PG concentrations. These insights may help explain the propensity for cell penetrating peptides containing arginine to more effectively cross cell membranes in comparison with lysine-rich peptides.

High-throughput single-molecule studies of protein-DNA interactions.

Fluorescence and force-based single-molecule studies of protein-nucleic acid interactions continue to shed critical insights into many aspects of DNA and RNA processing. As single-molecule assays are inherently low-throughput, obtaining statistically relevant datasets remains a major challenge. Additionally, most fluorescence-based single-molecule particle-tracking assays are limited to observing fluorescent proteins that are in the low-nanomolar range, as spurious background signals predominate at higher fluorophore concentrations. These technical limitations have traditionally limited the types of questions that could be addressed via single-molecule methods. In this review, we describe new approaches for high-throughput and high-concentration single-molecule biochemical studies. We conclude with a discussion of outstanding challenges for the single-molecule biologist and how these challenges can be tackled to further approach the biochemical complexity of the cell.

Rapid prototyping of multichannel microfluidic devices for single-molecule DNA curtain imaging.

Single-molecule imaging and manipulation of biochemical reactions continues to reveal numerous biological insights. To facilitate these studies, we have developed and implemented a high-throughput approach to organize and image hundreds of individual DNA molecules at aligned diffusion barriers. Nonetheless, obtaining statistically relevant data sets under a variety of reaction conditions remains challenging. Here, we present a method for integrating high-throughput single-molecule "DNA curtain" imaging with poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)-based microfluidics. Our benchtop fabrication method can be accomplished in minutes with common tools found in all molecular biology laboratories. We demonstrate the utility of this approach by simultaneous imaging of two independent biochemical reaction conditions in a laminar flow device. In addition, five different reaction conditions can be observed concurrently in a passive linear gradient generator. Combining rapid microfluidic fabrication with high-throughput DNA curtains greatly expands our capability to interrogate complex biological reactions.

Nucleosome acidic patch promotes RNF168- and RING1B/BMI1-dependent H2AX and H2A ubiquitination and DNA damage signaling.

Histone ubiquitinations are critical for the activation of the DNA damage response (DDR). In particular, RNF168 and RING1B/BMI1 function in the DDR by ubiquitinating H2A/H2AX on Lys-13/15 and Lys-118/119, respectively. However, it remains to be defined how the ubiquitin pathway engages chromatin to provide regulation of ubiquitin targeting of specific histone residues. Here we identify the nucleosome acid patch as a critical chromatin mediator of H2A/H2AX ubiquitination (ub). The acidic patch is required for RNF168- and RING1B/BMI1-dependent H2A/H2AXub in vivo. The acidic patch functions within the nucleosome as nucleosomes containing a mutated acidic patch exhibit defective H2A/H2AXub by RNF168 and RING1B/BMI1 in vitro. Furthermore, direct perturbation of the nucleosome acidic patch in vivo by the expression of an engineered acidic patch interacting viral peptide, LANA, results in defective H2AXub and RNF168-dependent DNA damage responses including 53BP1 and BRCA1 recruitment to DNA damage. The acidic patch therefore is a critical nucleosome feature that may serve as a scaffold to integrate multiple ubiquitin signals on chromatin to compose selective ubiquitinations on histones for DNA damage signaling.

Fluorescence modulation sensing of positively and negatively charged proteins on lipid bilayers.

BACKGROUND: Detecting ligand-receptor binding on cell membrane surfaces is required to understand their function and behavior. Detection platforms can also provide an avenue for the development of medical devices and sensor biotechnology. The use of fluorescence techniques for such purposes is highly desirable as they provide high sensitivity. Herein, we describe a technique that utilizes the sensitivity of fluorescence without directly tagging the analyte of interest to monitor ligand-receptor interactions on supported lipid bilayers. The fluorescence signal is modulated according to the charge state of the target analyte. The binding event elicits protonation or deprotonation of pH-responsive reporter dyes embedded in the lipid bilayer. METHODS: Supported lipid membranes containing ortho-conjugated rhodamine B-POPE (1-hexadecanoyl-2-(9Z-octadecenoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine), which fluoresces in its protonated but not in its deprotonated form, were utilized as sensor platforms for biotin-avidin and biotin-streptavidin binding events. The membranes contained 5 mol% biotin-PE (1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-(cap biotinyl) (sodium salt) as a capture ligand. Supported lipid bilayers were formed in the channels of microfluidic devices and the fluorescence intensity of the dye was monitored as protein was introduced. RESULTS: The binding of avidin, which is positively charged at pH 7.2, made the bilayer surface charge more positive, which in turn deprotonated the ortho-rhodamine B dye, reducing its fluorescence. The binding of streptavidin, which is negatively charged at pH 7.2, had the opposite effect. Reducing the ionic strength of the analyte solution by removing 150 mM NaCl from the 10 mM phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution raised the apparent pKa of the ortho-rhodamine B titration point by about 1 pH unit. This could be exploited in conjunction with bulk solution pH changes to turn the rhodamine B-POPE dye into a sensor for streptavidin involving a decrease, rather than an increase, in the fluorescence response, at pH values below streptavidin's pI value. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the ability to monitor ligand-receptor interactions on supported lipid bilayers through the protonation or deprotonation of reporter dyes for both negatively and positively charged analytes over a range of pH and ionic strength conditions. Specifically, the sensitivity and pH-operating range of this technique can be optimized by modulating the sensing conditions which are employed.

Monitoring protein-small molecule interactions by local pH modulation.

We have developed a technique for sensing protein-small molecule and protein-ion interactions in bulk aqueous solution by utilizing a pH sensitive dye, 5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein, conjugated to free lysine residues on the surfaces of designated capture proteins. The fluorescein intensity was found to change by about 6% and 15% for small molecule and ion binding, respectively. The assay works by modulating the local electric fields around a pH sensitive dye. This, in turn, alters the dye's apparent pK(A) value. Such changes may result directly from the charge on the analyte, occur through allosteric effects related to the binding process, or result from a combination of both. The assay was used to follow the binding of Ca(2+) to calmodulin (CaM) and thiamine monophosphate (ThMP) to thiamine binding protein A (TbpA). The results demonstrate a binding constant of 1.1 µM for the Ca(2+)/CaM pair and 3.2 nM for ThMP/TbpA pair, which are in excellent agreement with literature values. These assays demonstrate the generality of this method for observing the interactions of small molecules and ions with capture proteins. In fact, the assay should work as a biosensor platform for most proteins containing a specific ligand binding site, which would be useful as a simple and rapid preliminary screen of protein-ligand interactions.

Phosphatidylserine reversibly binds Cu2+ with extremely high affinity.

Phosphatidylserine (PS) embedded within supported lipid bilayers was found to bind Cu(2+) from solution with extraordinarily high affinity. In fact, the equilibrium dissociation constant was in the femtomolar range. The resulting complex formed in a 1:2 Cu(2+)-to-PS ratio and quenches a broad spectrum of lipid-bound fluorophores in a reversible and pH-dependent fashion. At acidic pH values, the fluorophores were almost completely unquenched, while at basic pH values significant quenching (85-90%) was observed. The pH at which the transition occurred was dependent on the PS concentration and ranged from approximately pH 5 to 8. The quenching kinetics was slow at low Cu(2+) concentrations and basic pH values (up to several hours), while the unquenching reaction was orders of magnitude more rapid upon lowering the pH. This was consistent with diffusion-limited complex formation at basic pH but rapid dissociation under acidic conditions. The tight binding of Cu(2+) to PS may have physiological consequences under certain circumstances.

Multivalent ligand-receptor binding on supported lipid bilayers.

Fluid supported lipid bilayers provide an excellent platform for studying multivalent protein-ligand interactions because the two-dimensional fluidity of the membrane allows for lateral rearrangement of ligands in order to optimize binding. Our laboratory has combined supported lipid bilayer-coated microfluidic platforms with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to obtain equilibrium dissociation constant (K(D)) data for these systems. This high throughput, on-chip approach provides highly accurate thermodynamic information about multivalent binding events while requiring only very small sample volumes. Herein, we review some of the most salient findings from these studies. In particular, increasing ligand density on the membrane surface can provide a modest enhancement or attenuation of ligand-receptor binding depending upon whether the surface ligands interact strongly with each other. Such effects, however, lead to little more than one order of magnitude change in the apparent K(D) values. On the other hand, the lipophilicity and presentation of lipid bilayer-conjugated ligands can have a much greater impact. Indeed, changing the way a particular ligand is conjugated to the membrane can alter the apparent K(D) value by at least three orders of magnitude. Such a result speaks strongly to the role of ligand availability for multivalent ligand-receptor binding.

Detecting protein-ligand binding on supported bilayers by local pH modulation.

Herein, we describe a highly sensitive technique for detecting protein-ligand binding at the liquid/solid interface. The method is based upon modulation of the interfacial pH when the protein binds. This change is detected by ortho-Texas Red DHPE, which is doped into supported phospholipid bilayers and used as a pH-sensitive dye. The dye molecule fluoresces strongly at acidic pH values but not basic ones and has an apparent pK(A) of 7.8 in 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine membranes containing 0.5 mol % biotin-cap-PE. This method was used to detect antibiotin/biotin binding interactions as well as the binding of cholera toxin B subunits to GM(1). Since these proteins are negatively charged under the conditions of the experiment the interface became slightly more acidic upon binding. In each case, the equilibrium dissociation constant was determined by following the rise in fluorescence as protein was introduced. This change is essentially linear with protein coverage under the conditions employed. For the biotin/antibiotin system it was determined that K(D) = 24 +/- 5 nM, which is in excellent agreement with classical measurements made by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy involving fluorophore-conjugated antibody molecules. Moreover, the limit of detection was approximately 350 fM at the 99% confidence level. This corresponds to 1 part in 69,000 of the K(D) value. Such a finding compares favorably with surface plasmon resonance studies of similar systems and conditions. The assay could be run in imaging mode to obtain multiple simultaneous measurements using a CCD camera.

A structural limitation on enzyme activity: the case of HMG-CoA synthase.

Recent structural studies of the HMG-CoA synthase members of the thiolase superfamily have shown that the catalytic loop containing the nucleophilic cysteine follows the phi and psi angle pattern of a II' beta turn. However, the i + 1 residue is conserved as an alanine, which is quite unusual in this position as it must adopt a strained positive phi angle to accommodate the geometry of the turn. To assess the effect of the conserved strain in the catalytic loop, alanine 110 of Enterococcus faecalis 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) synthase was mutated to a glycine. Subsequent enzymatic studies showed that the overall reaction rate of the enzyme was increased 140-fold. An X-ray crystallographic study of the Ala110Gly mutant enzyme demonstrated unanticipated adjustments in the active site that resulted in additional stabilization of all three steps of the reaction pathway. The rates of acetylation and hydrolysis of the mutant enzyme increased because the amide nitrogen of Ser308 shifts 0.4 A toward the catalytic cysteine residue. This motion positions the nitrogen to better stabilize the intermediate negative charge that develops on the carbonyl oxygen of the acetyl group during both the formation of the acyl-enzyme intermediate and its hydrolysis. In addition, the hydroxyl of Ser308 rotates 120 degrees to a position where it is able to stabilize the carbanion intermediate formed by the methyl group of the acetyl-S-enzyme during its condensation with acetoacetyl-CoA.