New Zealand veterinarians--demography, remuneration and vacancies.

AIMS: To determine levels of remuneration for veterinarians in New Zealand, to examine associations between putative explanatory factors and gross annual remuneration, and to quantify the type and prevalence of vacant positions. METHODS: A postal survey to 486 identifiable clinical practices and 53 identifiable organisations that employ veterinarians was used to gather data for the 2-month period of December 2001 to January 2002. RESULTS: Data were produced for 972 veterinarians (367 females and 605 males) working in 325 clinical practices, and 299 veterinarians (88 females and 211 males) employed by 32 organisations. Median levels of gross annual remuneration for assistants, partners/ shareholders and sole owners working >/=5 days per week in clinical practice were NZ$60,000, $90,000 and $75,000, respectively, and for veterinarians in organisations, irrespective of number of days per week worked, was $68,000. Pay rates increased linearly as the number of years since graduation increased for all clinicians and with increasing age for veterinarians in organisations. Full-time assistants were likely to be paid more if the practice was rural rather than urban in location, if they were males, and if administrative duties were part of the job. The same factors, except for sex, were significant for remuneration for owners and partners/shareholders working full-time. Their remuneration tended to be higher if the practice was involved with either dairy or deer work but decreased as the number of animal species serviced increased and if they worked >5 days per week. Part-time female veterinarians were generally paid more than male counterparts. Male veterinarians working in organisations were generally paid about 8% more than their female colleagues. Veterinarians in organisations involved with administration at a head office were generally better paid than those without administrative duties. Pay rates were, on the whole, better in private organisations than in universities, state-owned enterprises, government-operated and other types of organisations About 50% of all services provided by clinical practices were directed to small animals, 27% to dairy cattle and about 10%, 6% and 3% to horses, sheep and beef cattle, and deer, respectively. About 31% of veterinarians worked solely with small animals but most had multiple species workloads. Of the 325 respondent practices, 98 reported vacancies for 119 veterinarians, of which 79 were full-time, 27 part-time and 12 locum positions. Of the 32 respondent organisations, seven reported vacancies for 16 mostly full-time positions. Farmer owned co-operative practices were less likely than privately owned practices to have full-time vacant positions. The only factor identified as influencing part-time vacancies in clinical practices was hourly pay rate. Vacancies occurred randomly across practices, irrespective of location, and there was no indication of greater demand for services for any particular species. The odds of a vacancy in organisations was lower for state-owned enterprises and private organisations than for government organisations (odds ratios (OR)=0.14 and 0.18, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Relatively more females than males worked part-time and 23% of all assistants in clinical practice worked part-time. Sex made a significant difference to gross remuneration for full-time assistants in clinical practice and for veterinarians employed by private or government organisations. In both situations, males were generally better paid than females. Female part-time assistants and partners/shareholders or sole owners in clinical practice were generally better rewarded than their male counterparts. Sex had no effect on remuneration levels for owners/ partners working full-time in clinical practices. The study confirmed a serious shortage of veterinarians in New Zealand. The probability of a vacancy occurring in farmer owned co-operative ('club') practices was lower than in private practices. Vacancies were distributed randomly among rural, urban and rural/urban practices with no evidence of rural practices being more severely affected than urban or rural/urban practices.

Synergism between the potato glycoalkaloids alpha-chaconine and alpha-solanine in inhibition of snail feeding.

Snails (Helix aspersa L.) were fed filter paper treated with the potato glycoalkaloids, alpha-solanine and alpha-chaconine, singly or together. In pure form, both glycoalkaloids deterred feeding, with chaconine being the more active compound. In combination, authentic solanine and chaconine interacted synergistically in their inhibition of feeding. The antifeedant activities of methanolic extracts of tuber peel of the potato varieties Majestic and Sharpe's Express presented via filter paper discs did not differ significantly from those of authentic glycoalkaloid solutions of comparable concentration and ratio. In contrast, feeding inhibition by diluted tuber peel extracts of the variety Homeguard was greater than that elicited by comparable authentic glycoalkaloid solutions suggesting additional inhibitory compound(s) in the peel of this variety. Comparison of data from peel extracts of all three potato varieties and authentic glycoalkaloids indicated that the level of feeding inhibition by the extracts was, at least in part, a consequence of a synergism between solanine and chaconine.

Membrane disruption and enzyme inhibition by naturally-occurring and modified chacotriose-containing Solanum steroidal glycoalkaloids.

Naturally-occurring 3beta-O-chacotriosides of solasodine (solamargine), of its 22S, 25S isomer tomatidenol (beta-solamarine), and of solanidine (chaconine), as well as ring E- and F-modified derivatives of solamargine were prepared and assayed in order to assess the relevance of aglycone structural features to membrane-disruption and enzyme-inhibitory activities of the related glycoalkaloids. A ring E-opened dihydro-derivative of solasodine (the chacotrioside of dihydrosolasodine A) did not bind to cholesterol, stigmasterol or ergosterol in vitro, disrupt PC/cholesterol liposomes or mammalian erythrocytes. or inhibit acetylcholinesterase in vitro. It did not synergise with the solatrioside of dihydrosolasodine A or solasonine (nor did solamargine with dihydrosolasodine A solatrioside) in haemolysis tests. The ring F modified derivative, N-nitrososolamargine, did not inhibit acetylcholinesterase in vitro, but lysed liposomes at > or = 150 microM and pH 7. Increasing the pH to 8 (but not 9) further enhanced disruption. The combination of N-nitrososolamargine and solasonine did not cause any disruption of liposomes. Beta-solamarine showed no anti-acetylcholinesterase activity in vitro at up to 100 microM, but disrupted liposomes at 75 and 150 microM, although not to the extent caused by solamargine or chaconine. In combination with both the (inactive) solatriosides, solasonine and solanine, 75 microM beta-solamarine produced synergistic effects, with liposome disruption greater than 150 microM beta-solamarine alone. Beta-solamarine, solamargine and chaconine showed similar haemolytic activity. Beta-solamarine synergised with the solatriosides solasonine and solanine in disrupting erythrocytes. Preliminary structure-activity relationships were evaluated for the active chacotriosides in an attempt to define the scope and limitations of this model study.

Amelioration by glucose-6-phosphate and NADP of potato glycoalkaloid inhibition in cell, enzyme and liposome assays.

Lysis of human erythrocytes by 20 microM chaconine was reduced by 0.5 mM glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and NADP. Both compounds caused approximately 50% inhibition of haemolysis at 1 mM. Glucose, glucose-1-phosphate, rhamnose, galactose and galactose-6-phosphate were ineffective; NAD was effective, although not to the extent of NADP. Of the tested sugars, only G6P reduced solanine-induced haemolysis. G6P also reduced the synergistic haemolytic action of solanine and chaconine in combination. G6P and NADP at or above 5 mM antagonised chaconine-induced betanin loss from excised red beet root discs; NADP was more effective than G6P. Disruption of PC/cholesterol liposomes by chaconine and inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by chaconine or solanine, were unaffected by up to 10 mM NADP or 50 mM G6P.

Interactions between the glycoalkaloids solasonine and solamargine in relation to inhibition of fungal growth.

Inhibition of mycelium development in Phoma medicaginis and Rhizoctonia solani by solamargine and solasonine generally increased with increasing pH. P. medicaginis was the more susceptible species and solamargine the more potent compound. Solasonine was inactive against R. solani over the tested pH range (5-8). Dose-response curves confirmed these differential effects. Solamargine caused 50% growth inhibition in P. medicaginis at 60 microM (at pH 7) whereas no other treatment achieved this effect at 100 microM. Combinations of 50 microM of each glycoalkaloid produced synergistic effects against both fungi, especially R. solani which was essentially unaffected by either compound, by significantly inhibited by a 1:1 mixture of the two. The magnitude of the synergism was not affected by a pH change between 6 and 7. Spore germination in Alternaria brassicicola was markedly inhibited by 100 microM solamargine but unaffected by 100 microM solasonine or either compound at 50 microM. In P. medicaginis, neither glycoalkaloid was inhibitory up to 150 microM. In combination, the two compounds caused synergistic effects in both species, but to a much greater extent in A. brassicicola.

Synergistic interaction between potato glycoalkaloidsα-solanine andα-chaconine in relation to destabilization of cell membranes: Ecological implications.

In studies of the lysis of rabbit erythrocytes, red beet cells, andPenicillium notatum protoplasts by the potato glycoalkaloids α-solanine and α-chaconine, the latter was consistently the more membrane-disruptive compound and erythrocytes the more susceptible cell type. A 1∶1 mixture of solanine and chaconine produced pronounced synergistic effects in all three test systems. In beet cells, such effects were apparent from an early stage of treatment and persisted over a period of several hours. With erythrocytes and fungal protoplasts, the synergism was maximal with mixtures containing approximately 70% chaconine, whereas with beet cells it peaked at approximately 40% chaconine. Synergistic interactions between solanine and chaconine also occurred with regard to cholesterol binding in vitro, with a maximum response corresponding to the 50% mixture. The implications of these findings for the nature and efficacy of chemical defense systems in plants are discussed.

Steroidal glycoalkaloid content of potato, tomato and their somatic hybrids.

Analyses of leaves and 'tubers' from somatic hybrids of potato and tomato ('pomato' with plastids of potato, 'topato' with plastids of tomato) produced by fusion of protoplasts from liquid cultures of dihaploid potato and mesophyll of tomato revealed the presence of the two major potato glycoalkaloids (α-solanine and α-chaconine) as well as the tomato glycoalkaloid (αtomatine). The total alkaloid content of leaves was greater than that of 'tubers' and similar to levels in the foliage of parent plants. However, glycoalkaloids were more abundant in hybrid 'tubers' than in normal potato tubers by a factor of 5-15. In hybrid foliage, approximately 98% of the alkaloid present was of potato origin whereas in 'tubers' the reverse was the case, with tomatine comprising 60-70% of the total alkaloid. The similarities in alkaloid content and ratios between the pomato and the topato lines indicate that plastomes do not influence the biosynthesis and distribution of these alkaloids. The results indicate that major secondary metabolites may prove useful for assessing the hybrid nature of such plants.

An animal model of gestational diabetes.

Glucose tolerance tests (GTTs), hemoglobin A, levels, and pup weights were studied in both normal (C57BL/KsJ-+m/ + m) and heterozygous (C57BL/KsJ-db+/ + m) mice. There was no difference in GTT or hemoglobin A, levels between heterozygotes and normal animals in the nonpregnant state. However, the pregnant heterozygous mouse had significantly elevated GTTs (p less than 0.001) and hemoglobin A, levels (p less than 0.002) when compared to the normal pregnant mouse. The mean weight of pups from heterozygous parents was significantly greater than that of pups from normal parents (p less than 0.0005). Because the heterozygous mouse (C57BL/KsJ-db+/ + m) exhibits these characteristics of gestational diabetes, it may be possible to use it as an animal model of gestational diabetes.

Annual Variation in Sterol Levels in Leaves of Taraxacum officinale Weber.

Sterol levels in dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Weber) leaves were monitored over a period of 19 months. Sitosterol was the most abundant free sterol, followed by stigmasterol, then campesterol. Cholesterol could not be detected. With the exception of stigmasterol and campesterol, esters were present in greater quantities than were free forms, with 4,4-dimethyl sterol esters being the most abundant type. Glycosides occurred only sporadically. Free 4-demethyl sterols were maximal during the winter months; levels correlated negatively with sunshine and temperature, but proportions did not alter significantly. Sitosterol ester and cycloartenol ester (but not others) showed the opposite response, with levels correlating positively with sunshine and temperature. Relative amounts of 4-demethyl sterol esters remained reasonably constant, but those of cycloartenol ester and 24-methylene cycloartanol ester varied on an annual basis and were negatively correlated with each other.

Effects of light and photoperiodic conditions on abscisic acid in leaves and roots of Acer pseudoplatanus L.

Roots of Acer pseudoplatanus seedlings grown in liquid nutrient medium contained much lower levels of both free and bound abscisic acid than did leaves. The levels of free abscisic acid were similar in young expanding and of mature leaves, but lower in older senscing leaves. Growing plants under long days or short days did not influence the levels of free and bound abscisic acid in leaves. However, under both long days and short days, levels of bound abscisic acid were lower at the end of the dark period than 8 h later during the light period. Phaseic acid was also detected during the light period but never at the end of the dark period.

Use of estrogens in the climacteric and postmenopausal years.

PIP: A review of the nature of estrogens (Es) and their effects on the female genital tract, the effects of deprivation in the climacteric, and treatment of menopausal women is presented. The production of E begins in significant amounts in puberty. It is necessary for growth and development, secondary sex characteristics, and maintenance of pregnancy. Specific structural and metabolic alterations produced by E deficiency are described. Symptoms of the climacteric and postmenopause vary widely in severity. Familial, cultural,and educational background are important aspects of symptom development as is the psychological status of the woman. The role of E in the etiology of endometrial cancer is still unclear although some relationship is suggested. A description of therapy includes dose and administration and surveillance. There must be positive indication for the use of E and constant follow-up must be included.^ieng

Gynecologic disease in young, sexually active women.

There has been a significant change in adolescent sexual behavior in the past decade. This report of 1,594 young, sexually active women, primarily from middle and upper socioeconomic backgrounds, identifies the obstetric and gynecologic problems characteristic of the group. While supposedly in a low-risk category these patients displayed a high incidence of cervical epithelial abnormality, problem pregnancy, and other obstetric and gynecologic abnormality. The incidence of veneral disease was somewhat lower than anticipated.

The effect of prophylactic antibiotics on pelvic infection following vaginal hysterectomy.

PIP: The effect of prophylactic penicillin and streptomycin on postoperative pelvic infection and hospital stay following vaginal hysterectomy was studied. 92 patients received 600,000 U procaine pencillin plus .5 gm streptomycin 12 hours prior to operation and every 8 hours following operation for 3 days. 8 patients allergic to penicillian received 1 gm cephaloridine rather than penicillian and streptomycin. 100 patients undergoing vaginal hysterectomy received no prophylactic antibiotics. Morbidity caused by pelvic infection was significantly reduced (p less than .01) from 19 to 1% and urinary tract infection decreased from 6 to 2% when prophylactic antibiotics were employed. Total postoperative morbidity was decreased from 37 to 8% (p less than .01) and postoperative hospital stay was reduced from 6.3 to 5 days (p less than .002) when prophylactic antibiotics were administered.^ieng