Cognitive, emotional, and social factors promoting psychosocial adaptation: a study of latent profiles in people living in socially vulnerable contexts.

Introduction: Social adaptation is a multifaceted process that encompasses cognitive, social, and affective factors. Previous research often focused on isolated variables, overlooking their interactions, especially in challenging environments. Our study addresses this by investigating how cognitive (working memory, verbal intelligence, self-regulation), social (affective empathy, family networks, loneliness), and psychological (locus of control, self-esteem, perceived stress) factors interact to influence social adaptation. Methods: We analyzed data from 254 adults (55% female) aged 18 to 46 in economically vulnerable households in Santiago, Chile. We used Latent profile analysis (LPA) and machine learning to uncover distinct patters of socioadaptive features and identify the most discriminating features. Results: LPA showed two distinct psychosocial adaptation profiles: one characterized by effective psychosocial adaptation and another by poor psychosocial adaptation. The adaptive profile featured individuals with strong emotional, cognitive, and behavioral self-regulation, an internal locus of control, high self-esteem, lower stress levels, reduced affective empathy, robust family support, and decreased loneliness. Conversely, the poorly adapted profile exhibited the opposite traits. Machine learning pinpointed six key differentiating factors in various adaptation pathways within the same vulnerable context: high self-esteem, cognitive and behavioral self-regulation, low stress levels, higher education, and increased social support. Discussion: This research carries significant policy implications, highlighting the need to reinforce protective factors and psychological resources, such as self-esteem, self-regulation, and education, to foster effective adaptation in adversity. Additionally, we identified critical risk factors impacting social adaptation in vulnerable populations, advancing our understanding of this intricate phenomenon.

Executive functioning skills and (low) math achievement in primary and secondary school.

Schoolchildren with better executive functioning skills achieve better mathematics results. It is less clear how inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory combine to predict mathematics achievement and difficulty throughout primary and secondary school. This study aimed to find the best combination of executive function measures for predicting mathematical achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10 and to test whether this combination predicts the probability of having mathematical difficulties across school grades even when fluid intelligence and processing speed were included in the models. A total of 426 students-141 2nd graders (72 girls), 143 6th graders (72 girls), and 142 10th graders (79 girls)-were cross-sectionally assessed with 12 executive tasks, one standardized mathematical task, and a standardized test of intelligence. Bayesian regression analyses found various combinations of executive predictors of mathematical achievement for each school grade spanning Grade 2 to measures of cognitive inhibition (negative priming) and cognitive flexibility (verbal fluency); Grade 6 to measures of inhibition: resistance to distractor interference (receptive attention), cognitive flexibility (local-global), and working memory (counting span); and Grade 10 to measures of inhibition: resistance to distractor interference (receptive attention) and prepotent response inhibition (stop signal) and working memory (reading span). Logistic regression showed that the executive models derived from the Bayesian analyses had a similar ability to classify students with mathematical difficulty and their peers with typical achievement to broader cognitive models that included fluid intelligence and processing speed. Measures of processing speed, cognitive flexibility (local-global), and prepotent response inhibition (stop signal) were the main risk factors in Grades 2, 6, and 10, respectively. Cognitive flexibility (verbal fluency) in Grade 2 and fluid intelligence, which was more stable in all three grades, acted as protective factors against mathematical difficulty. These findings inform practical considerations for establishing preventive and intervention proposals.

Selective breeding of rats for high (HAB) and low (LAB) anxiety-related behaviour: A unique model for comorbid depression and social dysfunctions.

Animal models of selective breeding for extremes in emotionality are a strong experimental approach to model psychopathologies. They became indispensable in order to increase our understanding of neurobiological, genetic, epigenetic, hormonal, and environmental mechanisms contributing to anxiety disorders and their association with depressive symptoms or social deficits. In the present review, we extensively discuss Wistar rats selectively bred for high (HAB) and low (LAB) anxiety-related behaviour on the elevated plus-maze. After 30 years of breeding, we can confirm the prominent differences between HAB and LAB rats in trait anxiety, which are accompanied by consistent differences in depressive-like, social and cognitive behaviours. We can further confirm a single nucleotide polymorphism in the vasopressin promotor of HAB rats causative for neuropeptide overexpression, and show that low (or high) anxiety and fear levels are unlikely due to visual dysfunctions. Thus, HAB and LAB rats continue to exist as a reliable tool to study the multiple facets underlying the pathology of high trait anxiety and its comorbidity with depression-like behaviour and social dysfunctions.

The impacts of social determinants of health and cardiometabolic factors on cognitive and functional aging in Colombian underserved populations.

Global initiatives call for further understanding of the impact of inequity on aging across underserved populations. Previous research in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) presents limitations in assessing combined sources of inequity and outcomes (i.e., cognition and functionality). In this study, we assessed how social determinants of health (SDH), cardiometabolic factors (CMFs), and other medical/social factors predict cognition and functionality in an aging Colombian population. We ran a cross-sectional study that combined theory- (structural equation models) and data-driven (machine learning) approaches in a population-based study (N = 23,694; M = 69.8 years) to assess the best predictors of cognition and functionality. We found that a combination of SDH and CMF accurately predicted cognition and functionality, although SDH was the stronger predictor. Cognition was predicted with the highest accuracy by SDH, followed by demographics, CMF, and other factors. A combination of SDH, age, CMF, and additional physical/psychological factors were the best predictors of functional status. Results highlight the role of inequity in predicting brain health and advancing solutions to reduce the cognitive and functional decline in LMICs.

Neurocognitive factorial structure of executive functions: Evidence from neurotypicals and frontotemporal dementia.

The latent structure of executive functions (EFs) remains controversial. Confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) has provided support for both multidimensional (assumes EFs to be functionally separable but related components) and bifactor (proposes all components are nested within a common factor) models. However, these CFA models have never been compared in patient samples, nor regarding their neuroanatomical correlates. Here, we systematically contrast both approaches in neurotypicals and in a neurodegenerative lesion model (patients with the behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia, bvFTD), characterized by executive deficits associated with frontal neurodegeneration. First, CFA was used to test the models' fit in a sample of 341 neurotypicals and 29 bvFTD patients based on performance in an executive frontal screening battery which assesses working memory, motor inhibition, verbal inhibition, and abstraction capacity. Second, we compared EFs factor and observed scores between patients and matched controls. Finally, we used voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to compare the grey matter correlates of factor and observed scores. CFA results showed that both models fit the data well. The multidimensional model, however, was more sensitive than the bifactor model and the observed scores to detect EFs impairments in bvFTD patients. VBM results for the multidimensional model revealed common and unique grey matter correlates for EFs components across prefrontal-insular, posterior, and temporal cortices. Regarding the bifactor model, only the common factor was associated with prefrontal-insular hubs. Observed scores presented scant, non-frontal grey matter associations. Converging behavioral and neuroanatomical evidence from healthy populations and a neurodegenerative model of EFs supports an underlying multidimensional structure.

Funciones ejecutivas entre músicos y no músicos: un metaanálisis / Executive functions between musicians and non-musicians: a metanalysis

Resumen Se ha sugerido que la práctica profesional de un instrumento musical esta relacionada con mejores puntajes en tareas de funciones ejecutivas. Con el fin de examinar sistemáticamente esta hipótesis se realizó un metaanálisis para identificar el efecto de la interpretación de un instrumento en las funciones ejecutivas, así como las variables que podrían moderar dicho efecto. El metaanálisis incluyó estudios empíricos que: (1) compararon los puntajes en medidas de funciones ejecutivas entre músicos y no músicos; (2) reportaron las medias y desviaciones estándar; (3) el grupo de comparación no recibió entrenamiento musical; y (4) los participantes no presentaron discapacidad motora o cognitiva. Se identificó que los músicos, en comparación con los no músicos, muestran mejores puntajes en tareas de funciones ejecutivas (d = .712). Los resultados apoyan la hipótesis de que la práctica de un instrumento musical está relacionada con mejores puntuaciones en tareas de funciones ejecutivas.

Abstract Nowadays, it is widely accepted that experience can modify multiple aspects of the functioning and structure of the brain; however, there is still a long way to go to understand the mechanisms behind these modifications. In order to understand the relationship between experience and brain plasticity, models and paradigms have been adapted from cognitive neurosciences; one of them has been music training. In the last decades, this paradigm has strengthened because it allows us to understand the structural and functional modifications produced by training. It has been demonstrated that musicians compared to non-musicians present larger sizes of specific brain regions, in particular, the prefrontal cortex, which is associated with a better performance in executive functions tasks. In addition, long-term neurophysiological changes have been identified in people who play an instrument. A relationship between playing an instrument and better performance in executive functions has been identified. However, the evidence of this effect is contradictory. Executive functions are a series of general control processes that help regulate thinking and behavior. Some research indicates that learning an instrument is associated with better performance in working memory, but not regarding tasks related to inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility. However, other studies have revealed significant differences between musicians and non-musicians, both in working memory and tasks of cognitive flexibility as well as in inhibitory control. It is possible that the contradictory results are due to the methodological diversity through which this topic has been addressed, since some studies have carried out experimental and quasi-experimental designs, and others have developed correlational approaches. In addition, different theoretical models have been used to evaluate executive functions. For this study, we work with the theoretical model of Miyake et al. (2000), which is a solid theoretical-empirical proposal about three clearly differentiable executive functions: inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and working memory. A meta-analysis was performed with the purpose of identifying the effect of playing an instrument on executive functions as well as identifying the moderator variables. By doing this, we wanted to clarify the problem in question and the controversial results; therefore, empirical studies comparing musicians against non-musicians were included. The comparison group should not have been exposed to musical training, the participants should not present motor or cognitive disabilities, and finally, studies should report means and standard deviations for the scores on executive functions tasks. We included papers published between January 2000 and July 2017. The moderator variables studied were: age in months at the time of evaluation, age at which training began, and total years of training. The coding strategy allowed us to identify a total of 42 294 articles. The titles and abstracts were analyzed and those that did not meet the inclusion criteria were eliminated. This procedure allowed the detection of 24 articles for future analysis, and 12 out of them were finally selected. These 12 articles contributed to 60 effect sizes and 513 participants. The results showed that musicians have a better performance in executive functions tasks when they are compared to non-musicians, d = .712, n = 60, IC95% = (.57; .85), p < .0001. Additionally, the analysis of moderating variables revealed that the practice of an instrument equally benefits all executive functions, and the most important benefit occurs in older adults and children. Results support the hypothesis that the high level of difficulty involved with learning to play an instrument can influence a better performance in executive functions tasks. Our study points out the need of designing research that allows the scientific community to investigate the effect of prolonged musical training over time.

The role of social cognition skills and social determinants of health in predicting symptoms of mental illness.

Social factors, such as social cognition skills (SCS) and social determinants of health (SDH), may be vital for mental health, even when compared with classical psycho-physical predictors (demographic, physical, psychiatric, and cognitive factors). Although major risk factors for psychiatric disorders have been previously assessed, the relative weight of SCS and SDH in relation to classical psycho-physical predictors in predicting symptoms of mental disorders remains largely unknown. In this study, we implemented multiple structural equation models (SEM) from a randomized sample assessed in the Colombian National Mental Health Survey of 2015 (CNMHS, n = 2947, females: 1348) to evaluate the role of SCS, SDH, and psycho-physical factors (totaling 17 variables) as predictors of mental illness symptoms (anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric symptoms). Specifically, we assessed the structural equation modeling of (a) SCS (emotion recognition and empathy skills); (b) SDH (including the experience of social adversities and social protective factors); (c) and classical psycho-physical factors, including psychiatric antecedents, physical-somatic factors (chronic diseases), and cognitive factors (executive functioning). Results revealed that the emotion recognition skills, social adverse factors, antecedents of psychiatric disorders and chronic diseases, and cognitive functioning were the best predictors of symptoms of mental illness. Moreover, SCS, particularly emotion recognition skills, and SDH (experiences of social adversities, familial, and social support networks) reached higher predictive values of symptoms than classical psycho-physical factors. Our study provides unprecedented evidence on the impact of social factors in predicting symptoms of mental illness and highlights the relevance of these factors to track early states of disease.

Expression of Olig2, Nestin, NogoA and AQP4 have no impact on overall survival in IDH-wildtype glioblastoma.

Despite many years of research efforts and clinical trials the prognosis of patients diagnosed with glioblastoma remains very poor. The oligodendrocyte transcription factor 2 (Olig2) was identified as a marker for glioma stem cells, which are believed to be responsible for glioma recurrence and therapy resistance. In this retrospective analysis we assessed the prognostic value of oligodendroglial and glioma stem cell markers in 113 IDH-wildtype glioblastomas. Immunohistochemical staining for Olig2, NogoA, AQP4 and Nestin was performed in combination with sequencing of IDH1 and IDH2 as well as promotor methylation analysis of the MGMT gene. Even though differences in overall survival according to Olig2 expression were observed, univariate and multivariate survival analysis did not reveal a firm significant prognostic impact of Olig2, NogoA, AQP4 or Nestin expression. Additionally, no differences in the expression of these markers depending on clinical status, age or gender were found. The established independent prognostic factors age<65, Karnofsky Performance Status> = 70 and methylated MGMT gene promoter were significant in the multivariate analysis. In conclusion expression of oligodendroglial and glioma stem cell markers do not have an independent prognostic effect in IDH-wildtype glioblastoma.

Diagnostic red flags: steroid-treated malignant CNS lymphoma mimicking autoimmune inflammatory demyelination.

The presence of inflammation and demyelination in a central nervous system (CNS) biopsy points towards a limited, yet heterogeneous group of pathologies, of which multiple sclerosis (MS) represents one of the principal considerations. Inflammatory demyelination has also been reported in patients with clinically suspected primary central nervous system lymphoma (PCNSL), especially when steroids had been administered prior to biopsy acquisition. The histopathological changes induced by corticosteroid treatment can range from mild reduction to complete disappearance of lymphoma cells. It has been proposed that in the absence of neoplastic B cells, these biopsies are indistinguishable from MS, yet despite the clinical relevance, no histological studies have specifically compared the two entities. In this work, we analyzed CNS biopsies from eight patients with inflammatory demyelination in whom PCNSL was later histologically confirmed, and compared them with nine well defined early active multiple sclerosis lesions. In the patients with steroid-treated PCNSL (ST-PCNSL) the interval between first and second biopsy ranged from 3 to 32 weeks; all of the patients had received corticosteroids before the first, but not the second biopsy. ST-PCNSL patients were older than MS patients (mean age: ST-PCNSL: 62 ± 4 years, MS: 30 ± 2 years), and histological analysis revealed numerous apoptoses, patchy and incomplete rather than confluent and complete demyelination and a fuzzy lesion edge. The loss of Luxol fast blue histochemistry was more profound than that of myelin proteins in immunohistochemistry, and T cell infiltration in ST-PCNSL exceeded that in MS by around fivefold (P = 0.005). Our data indicate that in the presence of extensive inflammation and incomplete, inhomogeneous demyelination, the neuropathologist should refrain from primarily considering autoimmune inflammatory demyelination and, even in the absence of lymphoma cells, instigate close clinical follow-up of the patient to detect recurrent lymphoma.

How children learn to produce appropriate referring expressions in narratives: the role of clarification requests and modeling.

Asking children to clarify themselves promotes their ability to uniquely identify objects in referential communication tasks. However, little is known about whether parents ask preschoolers for clarification during interactions and, if so, how. Study 1 explored how mothers clarify their preschoolers' ambiguous descriptions of the characters in their narratives, and whether clarification requests affect children's repairs of their ambiguous descriptions. Mothers were found to use different strategies, including signaling misunderstanding and modeling appropriate descriptions. Presence of these different strategies predicted children's ability to provide informative repairs. Study 2 tested the effect of children's experience with signaling misunderstanding and modeling on their ability to uniquely identify the characters of a story on a second narration. Experiencing modeling, but not misunderstandings, positively affected children's provision of appropriate descriptions during second narrations. Findings are discussed in terms of the role of imitation in driving referential development.

Modelos de variables latentes, modelación cognitiva y memoria de trabajo: un punto de encuentro

Los modelos de variables latentes y los modelos cognitivos formales comparten algunos aspectos de su objeto de estudio, varios aspectos filosóficos y parte de su metodología. A pesar de ello, existe poca comunicación entre sus teorías y hallazgos. Con el objetivo de resaltar similitudes y diferencias entre ambos enfoques en este estudio se implementó y evaluó un modelo formal que propone la interferencia entre representaciones como el mecanismo que limita la capacidad de memoria de trabajo (i.e., el modelo de interferencia de Oberauer & Kliegl, 2006). Además, se incorporó una manipulación experimental que tuvo como objetivo evaluar el papel de la inhibición en respuestas inminentes y el desplazamiento de la atención entre tareas en el contexto del modelo de interferencia. A partir de estos hallazgos se expusieron algunas conexiones que podrían facilitar el acercamiento entre los modelos cognitivos formales y los modelos psicométricos basados en la teoría de la variable latente.

Latent variable models and formal cognitive models share some elements of their object of study, various philosophical aspects, and some parts of their methodology. Nevertheless, little communication exists between their theories and findings. In order to highlight similarities and differences, this study implemented and tested a formal model proposing that interference among representations is a mechanism limiting working memory capacity (i.e., the interference model of Oberauer & Kliegl, 2006). Furthermore, the study incorporated an experimental manipulation to evaluate the role of the inhibition in prepotent responses and task switching in the interference model framework. These findings were used to expose some connections that could facilitate a rapprochement between formal cognitive models and psychometric models based on the latent variable theory.

Working memory capacity in a go/no-go task: age differences in interference, processing speed, and attentional control.

We tested the limits of working-memory capacity (WMC) of young adults, old adults, and children with a memory-updating task. The task consisted of mentally shifting spatial positions within a grid according to arrows, their color signaling either only go (control) or go/no-go conditions. The interference model (IM) of Oberauer and Kliegl (2006) was simultaneously fitted to the data of all groups. In addition to the 3 main model parameters (feature overlap, noise, and processing rate), we estimated the time for switching between go and no-go steps as a new model parameter. In this study, we examined the IM parameters across the life span. The IM parameter estimates show that (a) conditions were not different in interference by feature overlap and interference by confusion; (b) switching costs time; (c) young adults and children were less susceptible than old adults to interference due to feature overlap; (d) noise was highest for children, followed by old and young adults; (e) old adults differed from children and young adults in lower processing rate; and (f) children and old adults had a larger switch cost between go steps and no-go steps. Thus, the results of this study indicated that across age, the IM parameters contribute distinctively for explaining the limits of WMC.

Validez y confiabilidad de tres escalas para evaluar conductas sociales en preescolares y escolares / Validity and reliability of three teachers’ ratings scales of socials be-haviors in preschoolers and scholars children

Estudiamos la validez y confiabilidad de tres escalas para evaluar conductas sociales niños y niñas costarricenses de preescolar y primer grado (n=262). Una de las escalas evalúa el comportamiento prosocial (ECPRO), otra evalúa la habilidad de explotar la experticia de los demás (EXHAD), y una más evalúa el comportamiento maquiavélico (EMach) en el ámbito escolar. Las escalas son completadas por docentes previamente capacitadas, de modo que el puntaje de cada niño o niña depende del criterio de su maestra respectiva. La estructura factorial de cada escala fue evaluada mediante un análisis de componentes principales. Según este análisis la ECPRO exhibió una estructura unidimensional caracterizada por un componente denominado “Disposición para Ayudar a los Otros”, la EXHAD mostró dos componentes principales denominados “Aprendizaje Social por Observación” y “Explotación de la Frutos de la Experticia de los Demás”, y la EMach reveló tres componentes: “Tácticas Maquiavélicas”, “Actitudes Ambivalentes hacia los Demás” y “Comprensión Social”. Las escalas arrojaron evidencia sobre una adecuada confiabilidad interna y validez de constructo. La ECPRO y la EMach evidenciaron validez discriminante entre sí. Además, estos hallazgos sugieren que el criterio de las maestras es una muy buena alternativa para evaluar este tipo de conductas sociales (AU)

The purpose of this study was to expose validity and reliability of three teacher’s ratings scales of socials behaviors in one sample (N=262) of preschoolers and scholars (grade one) Costa Ricans children. We design one scale of prosocial behavior (ECPRO) and other to evaluate the ability of exploiter the other’s expertise (EXHAD). Moreover we adapt one scale of machiavellian behavior (EMach). Teachers completed three scales for each participant. Factor structure was evaluated by principal components analysis. This analysis show that ECPRO is form by one component “Disposition for help others”, EXHAD is constitute by two components “Social Learning by Observation” and “Exploiting the Fruits of Other’s Expertise”; whereas EMach is constitute by three components “Machiavellian Tactics”, “Ambivalent Attitudes Toward the Others” and “Social Understanding”. The three teacher’s ratings scales show evidence of construct validity and internal reliability; furthermore ECPRO and EMach show discriminant validity. In addition these findings suggest that teachers are an excellent choice to evaluate this kind of socials behaviors (AU)

Interacciones entre el entendimiento de la falsa-creencia y el desarrollo de la habilidad verbal: Diferencias entre los sexos en edad preescolar / Interactions between false-belief understanding and verbal ability development: Sex differences in preschool children

En este artículo se analiza el desempeño de niños y niñas en la resolución de tareas de falsa-creencia y se explora la posible influencia del desarrollo de las habilidades verbales sobre las diferencias de rendimiento entre ambos sexos en dichas tareas. El trabajo incluye dos estudios: En el Estudio 1 se comparó el entendimiento de la falsa-creencia y la habilidad verbal de 17 niños y 17 niñas costarricenses de 5 años, con el entendimiento de la falsa-creencia y de la habilidad verbal de 17 niños y 17 niñas costarricenses de 6 años de edad. Para el Estudio 2, los mismos participantes del grupo de 5 años del Estudio 1 fueron reevaluados después de un período de 3 meses. En el Estudio 1, el grupo de niñas de 6 años evidenció un desempeño significativamente mayor que el grupo de niñas de 5 años, tanto en el índice de habilidad verbal como en el entendimiento de la falsa-creencia. En contraste, entre los niños de 5 y 6 años solo se encontró un incremento no significativo en los puntajes de ambas variables. Luego de reevaluar a los participantes de 5 años, el Estudio 2 confirmó estas diferencias entre ambos sexos y verificó que los incrementos entre ambas variables son mutuamente dependientes. Los hallazgos principales de ambos estudios señalan diferencias significativas en el desarrollo cognitivo de los preescolares según su sexo. La relevancia de los resultados se discute en el contexto del debate actual sobre las interacciones entre la habilidad verbal y la teoría de la mente durante la edad preescolar.

The purpose of this article is to analyze some developmental interactions between cognitive processes during the preschool period. In specific, we are interested in the interactions between verbal ability and false-belief understanding. The research explores the performance of boys and girls in the execution of false-belief tasks, and evaluates the possible influence of verbal ability development on the sex differences in the falsebelief scores. In recent times, the emphasis on the sex differences in this dimension of social cognition has been an important issue stemming from the results of current lines of research. The present work is divided in two studies. The Study 1 compares the false-belief understanding and verbal ability of 17 five-year-olds Costa Rican boys and 17 five-year-olds Costa Rican girls, with the false-belief understanding and verbal ability of 17 six-year-olds Costa Rican boys and 17 six-year-olds Costa Rican girls. The main interest of this first study is focused on the identification of interactions between the cognitive processes of the participants. Sub sequently, in Study 2, the same five-year-olds that participated in Study 1 were reevaluated through the same measures after a period of 3 months. The goal of this second study was to follow up the tendencies evidenced in the previous study, after a brief period of time. As an attempt to capture specific details in the development of these processes and given the recommendations of previous works, an interval of 3 months between measures was used here for the first time in the context of this line of research. All the participants were students from a public preschool in the capital city of Costa Rica and native speakers of the Spanish language. Additional inclusion criteria take into account the absence of developmental disorders and other antecedents of psychiatric / psychological intervention. The assessment of false- belief understanding was through a battery that includes four different false-belief tasks. This battery was conformed by 3 first order false-belief tasks, and one second order false-belief task. For the assessment of verbal ability, the study includes 4 subtests (Information, Arithmetic, Vocabulary, and Comprehension) from the WPPSI-III Verbal Ability Scale. The results of the Study 1 evidenced that the six-year-olds girls had significantly higher scores than the five-year-olds girls, both in verbal ability and in false-belief understanding. Interestingly, the improvements in both abilities were mutually dependent. In contrast, the scores at the same variables showed a small but not significant improvement between five and six-year-olds boys. In Study 2, our results confirm these sex differences through the reassessment of the same five-year-olds, and verify that the improvements in both abilities are mutually dependent. The main results of both studies highlights important sex differences in the cognitive development of preschool children. In both studies the false-belief understanding and verbal ability improve significantly in girls but not in boys. The implications of our data are discussed in the context of the actual debate about the interaction between verbal ability and theory of mind during the preschool years. The possible influences of different socialization processes associated with a particular gender are discussed, as well as other tentative mediating factors like the empathic abilities or the influence produced by the context of different daily play scenarios among boys and girls. Research limitations like the particular period of assessment between measures in the Study 2 or the necessity of more tasks for each construct are also discussed. Finally, tentative mechanisms that could account for our data are considered.