RESUMO
Oxometalates of vanadium(V), chromium(VI), and manganese(VII) have negative impacts on water resources due to their toxicity. To remove them, the kinetics of 0.04 mM oxometalates in natural and synthetic water were studied using graphene nanoplatelets (GNP). The GNP were dispersible in water and formed aggregates >15 µm that could be easily separated. Within 30 min, the GNP were covered with ~0.4 mg/g vanadium and ~1.0 mg/g chromium as Cr(OH)3. The reaction of 0.04 mM permanganate with 50 mg of GNP resulted in a coverage of 10 mg/g in 5 min, while the maximum value was 300 mg/g manganese as Mn2O3/MnO. TEM showed a random metal distribution on the surfaces; no clusters or nanoparticles were detected. The rate of disappearance in aerated water followed a pseudo second-order adsorption kinetics (PSO) for V(V), a pseudo second-order reaction for Cr(VI), and a pseudo first-order reaction for Mn(VII). For Cr(VI) and Mn(VII), the rate constants were found to depend on the GNP mass. Oxygen sorption occurred with PSO kinetics as a parallel slow process upon contact of GNP with air-saturated water. For thermally regenerated GNP, the rate constant decreased for V(V) but increased for Cr(VI), while no effect was observed for Mn(VII). GNP capacity was enhanced through regeneration for V(V) and Cr(VI); no effect was observed for Mn(VII). The reactions are well-suited for use in water purification processes and the reaction products, GNP, decorated with single metal atoms, are of great interest for the construction of sensors, electronic devices, and for application in single-atom catalysis (SAC).
RESUMO
Riverbank filtration is an established and quantitatively important approach to mine high-quality raw water for drinking water production. Bacterial fecal indicators are routinely used to monitor hygienic raw water quality, however, their applicability in viral contamination has been questioned repeatedly. Additionally, there are concerns that the increasing frequency and intensity of meteorological and hydrological events, i.e., heavy precipitation and droughts leading to high and low river levels, may impair riverbank filtration performance. In this study, we explored the removal of adenovirus compared with several commonly used bacterial and viral water quality indicators during different river levels. In a seasonal study, water from the Rhine River, a series of groundwater monitoring wells, and a production well were regularly collected and analyzed for adenovirus, coliphages, E. coli, C. perfringens, coliform bacteria, the total number of prokaryotic cells (TCC), and the number of virus-like particles (TVPC) using molecular and cultivation-based assays. Additionally, basic physico-chemical parameters, including temperature, pH, dissolved organic carbon, and nutrients, were measured. The highest log10 reduction during the >72 m of riverbank filtration from the river channel to the production well was observed for coliforms (>3.7 log10), followed by E. coli (>3.4 log10), somatic coliphages (>3.1 log10), C. perfringens (>2.5 log10), and F+ coliphages (>2.1 log10) at high river levels. Adenovirus decreased by 1.6-3.1 log units in the first monitoring well (>32 m) and was not detected in further distant wells. The highest removal efficiency of adenovirus and most other viral and bacterial fecal indicators was achieved during high river levels, which were characterized by increased numbers of pathogens and indicators. During low river levels, coliforms and C. perfringens were occasionally present in raw water at the production well. Adenovirus, quantified via droplet digital PCR, correlated with E. coli, somatic coliphages, TCC, TVPC, pH, and DOC at high river levels. At low river levels, adenoviruses correlated with coliforms, TVPC, pH, and water travel time. We conclude that although standard fecal indicators are insufficient for assessing hygienic raw water quality, a combination of E. coli, coliforms and somatic coliphages can assess riverbank filtration performance in adenovirus removal. Furthermore, effects of extreme hydrological events should be studied on an event-to-event basis at high spatial and temporal resolutions. Finally, there is an urgent need for a lower limit of detection for pathogenic viruses in natural waters. Preconcentration of viral particles from larger water volumes (>100 L) constitutes a promising strategy.
RESUMO
In response to increasingly stringent restrictions for drinking water quality, a parallel operation of two common technologies, low-pressure reverse osmosis (LPRO) and activated carbon filtration (ACF), was investigated in a comprehensive five-month pilot study for the removal of 32 typical trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) from Rhine bank filtrates employing a semi- technical plant. TrOCs have been divided into three groups: polyfluorinated aliphatic compounds; pharmaceuticals, pesticides and metabolites; in addition to volatiles, nitrosamines and aminopolycarboxylic acids, which were also examined. The net pressure behavior, normalized salt passage and rejection of TrOCs by LPRO were investigated and compared with ACF operation. In addition, autopsies from the leading and last membrane modules were performed using adenosine triphosphate (ATP), total organic carbon (TOC), ICP-OES and SEM-EDX techniques. Generally, rather stable LPRO membrane performance with limited membrane fouling was observed. TrOCs with a molecular weight of ≥ 150 Da were completely retained by LPRO, while the rejection of di- and trichloro compounds improved as the filtration progressed. ACF also showed significant removal for most of the TrOCs, but without desalination. Accordingly, the ACF and LPRO can be operated in parallel such that the LPRO permeate and the ACF-treated bypass can be mixed to produce drinking water with adjustable hardness and significantly reduced TrOCs.
RESUMO
In a gasoline-contaminated site in Düsseldorf, Germany a two-year monitoring program was carried out to determine the presence, behavior, and fate of 12 gasoline additives in a total of 96 samples from 14 groundwater wells. The origin of contamination was suspected to be a gasoline spill at a gas station. Target compounds were methyl-tert-butyl ether (MTBE), its main degradation products, tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) and tert-butyl formate (TBF); other gasoline additives, oxygenate dialkyl ethers: Ethyl-tert-butyl ether (ETBE), tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) and diisopropyl ether (DIPE); aromatics: Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX), and other compounds causing odor problems: Dicyclopentadiene and trichloroethylene. Purge and trap coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry permitted detection of ng/L concentrations. Ninety of the 96 samples analyzed contained MTBE at levels varying between 0.01 to 645 microg/L. Five contaminated hot spots were identified with levels up to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) drinking water advisory values (20-40 microg/L) and one of them doubling Danish suggested toxicity level of 350 microg/L at a depth of 11 m. No significant natural attenuation was found in MTBE degradation, although samples with high levels of MTBE contained 0.1 to 440 microg/L of TBA. These levels were attributed to its presence in the contamination source more than MTBE degradation. tert-Butyl alcohol was found to be recalcitrant in groundwater. In all cases, BTEX were at low concentrations or not detected, showing less persistence than MTBE. The monitoring of the contamination plume showed that the distribution of the MTBE and TBA in the aquifer formed a similar vertical concentration profile that was influenced by the groundwater flow direction.
