Development and analytical validation of real-time PCR for the detection of Streptococcus agalactiae in pregnant women.

BACKGROUND: Group B Streptococcus (GBS) is the leading cause of invasive neonatal infection. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the analytical validation of qualitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) as a means to detect GBS. METHODS: Genomic DNA (gDNA) was purified from 12 ATCC bacterial strains, two belonging to GBS and the remainder acting as negative controls. Additionally, gDNA was isolated from 21 strains of GBS from various serotypes (Ia, Ib and II-VIII). All gDNA was used to evaluate the analytical validation of the qPCR method employing a specific Taqman probe. Inclusivity, exclusivity, anticipated reportable range, the limit of detection and robustness were evaluated. The methods used are described in international guidelines and other existing reports. The performance of this qPCR method for detecting GBS was compared to other microbiological methods used with vaginal-rectal samples from pregnant women. RESULTS: Our qPCR method for detecting GBS was analytically validated. It has a limit of detection of 0.7 GE/µL and 100% analytical specificity. It detects all strains of GBS with the same level of performance as microbiological methods. CONCLUSION: Data suggest that this qPCR method performs adequately as a means to detect GBS in vaginal-rectal swabs from pregnant women.

The Uptake of GABA in Trypanosoma cruzi.

Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA) is widely known as a neurotransmitter and signal transduction molecule found in vertebrates, plants, and some protozoan organisms. However, the presence of GABA and its role in trypanosomatids is unknown. Here, we report the presence of intracellular GABA and the biochemical characterization of its uptake in Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas' disease. Kinetic parameters indicated that GABA is taken up by a single transport system in pathogenic and nonpathogenic forms. Temperature dependence assays showed a profile similar to glutamate transport, but the effect of extracellular cations Na(+) , K(+) , and H(+) on GABA uptake differed, suggesting a different uptake mechanism. In contrast to reports for other amino acid transporters in T. cruzi, GABA uptake was Na(+) dependent and increased with pH, with a maximum activity at pH 8.5. The sensitivity to oligomycin showed that GABA uptake is dependent on ATP synthesis. These data point to a secondary active Na(+) /GABA symporter energized by Na(+) -exporting ATPase. Finally, we show that GABA occurs in the parasite's cytoplasm under normal culture conditions, indicating that it is regularly taken up from the culture medium or synthesized through an still undescribed metabolic pathway.

The effect of tunicamycin on the glucose uptake, growth, and cellular adhesion in the protozoan parasite Crithidia fasciculata.

Crithidia fasciculata represents a very interesting model organism to study biochemical, cellular, and genetic processes unique to members of the family of the Trypanosomatidae. Thus, C. fasciculata parasitizes several species of insects and has been widely used to test new therapeutic strategies against parasitic infections. By using tunicamycin, a potent inhibitor of glycosylation in asparaginyl residues of glycoproteins (N-glycosylation), we demonstrate that N-glycosylation in C. fasciculata cells is involved in modulating glucose uptake, dramatically impacting growth, and cell adhesion. C. fasciculata treated with tunicamycin was severely affected in their ability to replicate and to adhere to polystyrene substrates and losing their ability to aggregate into small and large groups. Moreover, under tunicamycin treatment, the parasites were considerably shorter and rounder and displayed alterations in cytoplasmic vesicles formation. Furthermore, glucose uptake was significantly impaired in a tunicamycin dose-dependent manner; however, no cytotoxic effect was observed. Interestingly, this effect was reversible. Thus, when tunicamycin was removed from the culture media, the parasites recovered its growth rate, cell adhesion properties, and glucose uptake. Collectively, these results suggest that changes in the tunicamycin-dependent glycosylation levels can influence glucose uptake, cell growth, and adhesion in the protozoan parasite C. fasciculata.

Inflammatory effects of Edwardsiella ictaluri lipopolysaccharide modifications in catfish gut.

Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are structural components of the outer membranes of Gram-negative bacteria and also are potent inducers of inflammation in mammals. Higher vertebrates are extremely sensitive to LPS, but lower vertebrates, like fish, are resistant to their systemic toxic effects. However, the effects of LPS on the fish intestinal mucosa remain unknown. Edwardsiella ictaluri is a primitive member of the Enterobacteriaceae family that causes enteric septicemia in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). E. ictaluri infects and colonizes deep lymphoid tissues upon oral or immersion infection. Both gut and olfactory organs are the primary sites of invasion. At the systemic level, E. ictaluri pathogenesis is relatively well characterized, but our knowledge about E. ictaluri intestinal interaction is limited. Recently, we observed that E. ictaluri oligo-polysaccharide (O-PS) LPS mutants have differential effects on the intestinal epithelia of orally inoculated catfish. Here we evaluate the effects of E. ictaluri O-PS LPS mutants by using a novel catfish intestinal loop model and compare it to the rabbit ileal loop model inoculated with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LPS. We found evident differences in rabbit ileal loop and catfish ileal loop responses to E. ictaluri and S. Typhimurium LPS. We determined that catfish respond to E. ictaluri LPS but not to S. Typhimurium LPS. We also determined that E. ictaluri inhibits cytokine production and induces disruption of the intestinal fish epithelia in an O-PS-dependent fashion. The E. ictaluri wild type and ΔwibT LPS mutant caused intestinal tissue damage and inhibited proinflammatory cytokine synthesis, in contrast to E. ictaluri Δgne and Δugd LPS mutants. We concluded that the E. ictaluri O-PS subunits play a major role during pathogenesis, since they influence the recognition of the LPS by the intestinal mucosal immune system of the catfish. The LPS structure of E. ictaluri mutants is needed to understand the mechanism of interaction.

Glutamate transport and xanthan gum production in the plant pathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri.

L-glutamate plays a central role in nitrogen metabolism in all living organisms. In the genus Xanthomonas, the nitrogen nutrition is an important factor involved in the xanthan gum production, an important exopolysaccharide with various industrial and biotechnological applications. In this report, we demonstrate that the use of L-glutamate by the phytopathogen Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri as a nitrogen source in defined medium significantly increases the production of xanthan gum. This increase is dependent on the L-glutamate concentration. In addition, we have also characterized a glutamate transport system that is dependent on a proton gradient and on ATP and is modulated by amino acids that are structurally related to glutamate. This is the first biochemical characterization of an energy substrate transport system observed in a bacterial phytopathogen with a broad economic and industrial impact due to xanthan gum production.

Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Vaccine Strains Expressing a Nontoxic Shiga-Like Toxin 2 Derivative Induce Partial ProtectiveImmunity to the Toxin Expressed by Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli

Shiga-like toxin 2 (Stx2)-producing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (referred to as EHEC or STEC) strainsare the primary etiologic agents of hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which leads to renal failure and highmortality rates. Expression of Stx2 is the most relevant virulence-associated factor of EHEC strains, and toxin neutralization by antigen-specific serum antibodies represents the main target for both preventive and therapeuticanti-HUS approaches. In the present report, we describe two Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium aroA vaccine strains expressing a nontoxic plasmid-encoded derivative of Stx2 (Stx2 AB) containing the complete nontoxic A2 subunit and the receptor binding B subunit. The two S. Typhimurium strains differ inthe expression of flagellin, the structural subunit of the flagellar shaft, which exerts strong adjuvant effects. Thevaccine strains expressed Stx2 AB, either cell bound or secreted into the extracellular environment, andshowed enhanced mouse gut colonization and high plasmid stability under both in vitro and in vivo conditions.Oral immunization of mice with three doses of the S. Typhimurium vaccine strains elicited serum anti-Stx2B(IgG) antibodies that neutralized the toxic effects of the native toxin under in vitro conditions (Vero cells) andconferred partial protection under in vivo conditions. No significant differences with respect to gut colonization or the induction of antigen-specific antibody responses were detected in mice vaccinated with flagellated versus nonflagellated bacterial strains. The present results indicate that expression of Stx2 AB by attenuated S. Typhimurium strains is an alternative vaccine approach for HUS control, but additional improvements in the immunogenicity of Stx2 toxoids are still required.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium vaccine strains expressing a nontoxic Shiga-like toxin 2 derivative induce partial protective immunity to the toxin expressed by enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli.

Shiga-like toxin 2 (Stx2)-producing enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (referred to as EHEC or STEC) strains are the primary etiologic agents of hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS), which leads to renal failure and high mortality rates. Expression of Stx2 is the most relevant virulence-associated factor of EHEC strains, and toxin neutralization by antigen-specific serum antibodies represents the main target for both preventive and therapeutic anti-HUS approaches. In the present report, we describe two Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium aroA vaccine strains expressing a nontoxic plasmid-encoded derivative of Stx2 (Stx2DeltaAB) containing the complete nontoxic A2 subunit and the receptor binding B subunit. The two S. Typhimurium strains differ in the expression of flagellin, the structural subunit of the flagellar shaft, which exerts strong adjuvant effects. The vaccine strains expressed Stx2DeltaAB, either cell bound or secreted into the extracellular environment, and showed enhanced mouse gut colonization and high plasmid stability under both in vitro and in vivo conditions. Oral immunization of mice with three doses of the S. Typhimurium vaccine strains elicited serum anti-Stx2B (IgG) antibodies that neutralized the toxic effects of the native toxin under in vitro conditions (Vero cells) and conferred partial protection under in vivo conditions. No significant differences with respect to gut colonization or the induction of antigen-specific antibody responses were detected in mice vaccinated with flagellated versus nonflagellated bacterial strains. The present results indicate that expression of Stx2DeltaAB by attenuated S. Typhimurium strains is an alternative vaccine approach for HUS control, but additional improvements in the immunogenicity of Stx2 toxoids are still required.

Use of L-proline and ATP production by Trypanosoma cruzi metacyclic forms as requirements for host cell invasion.

The process of host cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi depends on parasite energy. What source of energy is used for that event is not known. To address this and other questions related to T. cruzi energy requirements and cell invasion, we analyzed metacyclic trypomastigote forms of the phylogenetically distant CL and G strains. For both strains, the nutritional stress experienced by cells starved for 24, 36, or 48 h in phosphate-buffered saline reduced the ATP content and the ability of the parasite to invade HeLa cells proportionally to the starvation time. Inhibition of ATP production by treating parasites with rotenone plus antimycin A also diminished the infectivity. Nutrient depletion did not alter the expression of gp82, the surface molecule that mediates CL strain internalization, but increased the expression of gp90, the negative regulator of cell invasion, in the G strain. When L-proline was given to metacyclic forms starved for 36 h, the ATP levels were restored to those of nonstarved controls for both strains. Glucose had no such effect, although this carbohydrate and L-proline were transported in similar fashions. Recovery of infectivity promoted by L-proline treatment of starved parasites was restricted to the CL strain. The profile of restoration of ATP content and gp82-mediated invasion capacity by L-proline treatment of starved Y-strain parasites was similar to that of the CL strain, whereas the Dm28 and Dm30 strains, whose infectivity is downregulated by gp90, behaved like the G strain. L-Proline was also found to increase the ability of the CL strain to traverse a gastric mucin layer, a property important for the establishment of T. cruzi infection by the oral route. Efficient translocation of parasites through gastric mucin toward the target epithelial cells in the stomach mucosa is an essential requirement for subsequent cell invasion. By relying on these closely associated ATP-driven processes, the metacyclic trypomastigotes effectively accomplish their internalization.

Active transport of glutamate in Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis.

Leishmania spp. are the causative agents of leishmaniasis, a complex of diseases with a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. Leishmania (Leishmania) amazonensis is a main etiological agent of diffuse cutaneous leishmaniasis. Leishmania spp., as other trypanosomatids, possess a metabolism based significantly on the consumption of amino acids. However, the transport of amino acids in these organisms remains poorly understood with few exceptions. Glutamate transport is an important biological process in many organisms. In the present work, the transport of glutamate is characterized. This process is performed by a single kinetic system (K(m)=0.59+/-0.04 mM, V(max)=0.123+/-0.003 nmol/min per 20 x 10(6) cells) showing an energy of activation of 52.38+/-4.7 kJ/mol and was shown to be partially inhibited by analogues, such as glutamine, aspartate, alpha-ketoglutarate and oxaloacetate, methionine, and alanine. The transport activity was sensitive to the extracellular concentration of H(+) but not to Na(+) or K(+). However, unlike other amino acid transporters presently characterized, the treatment with specific ionophores confirmed the participation of a K(+), and not H(+) membrane gradient in the transport process.

L-Proline uptake in Crithidia deanei is influenced by its endosymbiont bacterium.

Crithidia deanei, a monoxenic trypanosomatid, presents an endosymbiotic bacterium in its cytoplasm. Both the protozoan and the bacterium maintain intensive metabolic exchange, resulting in an interesting model to study the coevolution of metabolisms. The relevance of l-proline for the growth of C. deanei and its transport into these cells was studied. Both the endosymbiont-containing (wild) and the endosymbiont-free protozoa (aposymbiont or cured) strains, when grown in medium supplemented with l-proline, reached higher cell densities than those grown in unsupplemented media. We biochemically characterized the uptake of l-proline in both the wild (K(m)=0.153+/-0.022 mM, V(max)=0.239+/-0.011 nmol min(-1) per 4 x 10(7) cells) and the aposymbiont strains (K(m)=0.177+/-0.049 mM, V(max)=0.132+/-0.012 nmol min(-1) per 4 x 10(7) cells). These data suggest a single type of proline transporter whose activity is upregulated by the presence of the symbiotic bacterium. Proline transport was further characterized and was found to be insensitive to the extracellular concentration of Na+, but sensitive to K+ and pH. The abolition of proline uptake by respiratory chain inhibitors and valinomycin indicates that the proline transport in C. deanei is dependent on the plasma membrane K+ gradient.

Biochemical characterization of the glutamate transport in Trypanosoma cruzi.

The role of amino acids in trypanosomatids goes beyond protein synthesis, involving processes such as differentiation, osmoregulation and energy metabolism. The availability of the amino acids involved in those functions depends, among other things, on their transport into the cell. Here we characterize a glutamate transporter from the human protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Kinetic data show a single saturable system with a Km of 0.30 mM and a maximum velocity of 98.34 pmoles min(-1) per 2 x 10(7) cells for epimastigotes and 20 pmoles min(-1) per 2 x 10(7) cells for trypomastigotes. Transport was not affected by parasite nutrient starvation for up to 3h. Aspartate, alanine, glutamine, asparagine, methionine, oxaloacetate and alpha-ketoglutarate competed with the substrate in 10-fold excess concentrations. Glutamate uptake was strongly dependent on pH, but not on Na+ or K+ concentrations in the extracellular medium. These data were consistent with the sensitivity of the system to the H+ ionophore carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone, suggesting that transport is driven by H+ concentration gradient across the cytoplasmic membrane. The glutamate transport increased linearly with temperature in a range from 15 to 40 degrees C, allowing the calculation of an activation energy of 52.38 kJ/mol.