Gestational age within normal range and infants' health and temperament at 3-months of age.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between gestational age (GA) at birth across the normal GA spectrum (37-41 weeks) and the temperament and health of 3-month old infants. METHODS: The sample comprised 242 "low-risk" mothers and infants without chronic illnesses or severe pregnancy complications. Infant temperament was defined by three constructs: Negative Affectivity (NA), Extraversion, and Regulation, assessed by parents' reports on the Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Infants' health was defined as the number of nonroutine doctors' visits attended by the infants since their release from the hospital after birth. Analyses employed a continuous measure of GA to assess outcomes across GAs and a categorical measure (37, 38, 39-41 weeks GA) to examine contrasts. RESULTS: Extraversion was positively related to GA primarily due to the lower scores of infants born at 37 weeks compared to infants born at 39-41 weeks GA. NA showed a similar effect. The odds of infants born at 37 weeks attending a nonroutine medical visit were 2.8 times that of infants born full-term. DISCUSSION: Infants born at 37 weeks GA express less affect and use more nonroutine medical services than do infants born at 39-41 weeks GA. The findings underscore the importance of considering the risks of pregnancy prolongation with the developmental risk associated with early-term delivery.

Dopamine receptor polymorphism modulates the relation between antenatal maternal anxiety and fetal movement.

We determined whether the combination of fetal genotype (dopamine D4 receptor; DRD4) and mothers' anxiety during pregnancy is associated with fetal behavior. Two hundred and six pregnant women underwent an ultrasound exam. Fetal movement measures (Movement Frequency, Total Activity, Movement Duration, and Longest Quiet Time) were derived from off-line coding. A moderating role of the DRD4-III polymorphism was found: Results indicate that higher levels of antenatal maternal anxiety symptoms were associated with more frequent fetal movements among fetuses carrying a 7R allele, but not among fetuses carrying shorter alleles. Total Activity did not show full moderation by DRD4, though the measure was correlated with maternal anxiety among fetuses in the Anxious Group with a 7R allele; not among fetuses without both factors. The findings provide the first evidence of a GXE interaction in association with fetal behavior. Results also demonstrate that some individuals are inherently more susceptible to uterine environmental influences than are others.

Relation between maternal antenatal anxiety and infants' weight depends on infants' sex: A longitudinal study from late gestation to 1-month post birth.

OBJECTIVE: To test for gender-differences in the relation between mothers' antenatal anxiety and infants' body weight during gestation, at birth, and at 1-month of age. METHODS: Two hundred and twelve randomly-recruited women were divided into two groups: Controls (n=105) and Anxious Group (n=107) based on a standard cut-off of the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Outcome measures were Fetal Weight derived from biometrics obtained from an ultrasound scan in the 3rd trimester and infants' weight at birth and at 1-month of age, both obtained from medical records. RESULTS: Multivariate analyses showed main effects of Gender on infants' birth weight (P=.001) and on infants' weight at 1-month of age (P=.004), but no main effects of Anxiety Group at any time-point. Gender x Anxiety Group interactions at all three time points (Fetal weight: P=.05; Birth weight: P=.03; 1-month of age: P=.10) reflected gender differences (males>females) among infants in the anxious group, but not among controls. Distinct trends regarding same sex comparisons across groups (Control vs. Anxiety) were in line with predictions (male controlsfemales anxious). Controlling for Postpartum Anxiety and Antenatal and Postpartum Depression in the models did not affect primary results. CONCLUSION: Gender differences in fetal and birth weight were more substantial among infants of anxious mothers than among controls due to the seemingly accelerated growth of "anxious" males and the diminution of weight among "anxious" females.

Moderate antenatal anxiety symptoms and birth outcomes of boys and girls.

Women's antenatal anxiety, especially if paired with significant life stressors or comorbid physical or mental health disorders, can predict adverse birth outcomes, defined in terms of birth weight, gestational age at birth and obstetric complications. Here, we tested for an impact of moderate anxiety symptoms on these outcomes because many women experience these kinds of symptoms during pregnancy, and even subtle differences in birth outcomes can have significant effects on children's development. We also tested for moderation of anxiety effects by infant gender. The sample comprised 219 women with anxiety symptoms ranging from none to moderate levels on the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Multivariate models estimated main effects of Group (no/minimal versus moderate symptoms) and interactions between Group and infant Gender. Results indicate that moderate anxiety predicted more obstetric complications, particularly among mothers of daughters. Results also demonstrate a Group × Gender interaction on BW, indicating that sons of anxious mothers weighed more than sons of controls; whereas, daughters of anxious mothers weighed less than daughters of controls. These findings show that moderate anxiety symptoms may affect some birth outcomes, and differently for males and females.

Exposure to childhood traumas ups the odds of giving birth to daughters.

This study examined the likelihood of giving birth to a daughter as a function of women's exposure to four categories of stressors: childhood trauma, adult trauma, chronic stressors, and recent (adverse) life events. Hypothesis 1 stated that exposure to recent life events (near conception) and to childhood traumas would increase women's chances of having a girl baby. Hypothesis 2 stated that the relationship between stress and gender outcome is mediated by persistent posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. The final sample was comprised of 225 women. The design was prospective observational. At first contact, women were retained if they were <27 weeks pregnant and met initial inclusion criteria. In interview 2, at 27-30 weeks, women were excluded for positive diagnoses of anxiety disorders besides PTSD with or without depression (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Disorders). In interview 3 (30-34 weeks), reports on stress categories (Social Stress Indicator Questionnaire) and PTSD symptoms (Post-Traumatic Checklist) were obtained. Infant gender was obtained from medical records. The relationship between stress categories and the distribution of girl/boy infants was examined with Chi Squares and logistic regression analyses. Mediation was tested with the macro PROCESS (Hayes 2012). Childhood trauma was the only stress category that increased the odds of having a girl, with an odds ratio of >3.0 for women who had been exposed to more than two such events. PTSD symptoms (partially) mediated the relationship between childhood trauma and infant gender. Findings suggest that women's exposure to childhood trauma contributes to the determination of the sex ratio at birth and that PTSD symptoms are part of the cause.