How many TCR clonotypes does a body maintain?

We consider the lifetime of a T cell clonotype, the set of T cells with the same T cell receptor, from its thymic origin to its extinction in a multiclonal repertoire. Using published estimates of total cell numbers and thymic production rates, we calculate the mean number of cells per TCR clonotype, and the total number of clonotypes, in mice and humans. When there is little peripheral division, as in a mouse, the number of cells per clonotype is small and governed by the number of cells with identical TCR that exit the thymus. In humans, peripheral division is important and a clonotype may survive for decades, during which it expands to comprise many cells. We therefore devise and analyse a computational model of homeostasis of a multiclonal population. Each T cell in the model competes for self pMHC stimuli, cells of any one clonotype only recognising a small fraction of the many subsets of stimuli. A constant mean total number of cells is maintained by a balance between cell division and death, and a stable number of clonotypes by a balance between thymic production of new clonotypes and extinction of existing ones. The number of distinct clonotypes in a human body may be smaller than the total number of naive T cells by only one order of magnitude.

Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modelling approaches in paediatric infectious diseases and immunology.

Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PKPD) modelling is used to describe and quantify dose-concentration-effect relationships. Within paediatric studies in infectious diseases and immunology these methods are often applied to developing guidance on appropriate dosing. In this paper, an introduction to the field of PKPD modelling is given, followed by a review of the PKPD studies that have been undertaken in paediatric infectious diseases and immunology. The main focus is on identifying the methodological approaches used to define the PKPD relationship in these studies. The major findings were that most studies of infectious diseases have developed a PK model and then used simulations to define a dose recommendation based on a pre-defined PD target, which may have been defined in adults or in vitro. For immunological studies much of the modelling has focused on either PK or PD, and since multiple drugs are usually used, delineating the relative contributions of each is challenging. The use of dynamical modelling of in vitro antibacterial studies, and paediatric HIV mechanistic PD models linked with the PK of all drugs, are emerging methods that should enhance PKPD-based recommendations in the future.

Optimizing DNA nanotechnology through coarse-grained modeling: a two-footed DNA walker.

DNA has enormous potential as a programmable material for creating artificial nanoscale structures and devices. For more complex systems, however, rational design and optimization can become difficult. We have recently proposed a coarse-grained model of DNA that captures the basic thermodynamic, structural, and mechanical changes associated with the fundamental process in much of DNA nanotechnology, the formation of duplexes from single strands. In this article, we demonstrate that the model can provide powerful insight into the operation of complex nanotechnological systems through a detailed investigation of a two-footed DNA walker that is designed to step along a reusable track, thereby offering the possibility of optimizing the design of such systems. We find that applying moderate tension to the track can have a large influence on the operation of the walker, providing a bias for stepping forward and helping the walker to recover from undesirable overstepped states. Further, we show that the process by which spent fuel detaches from the walker can have a significant impact on the rebinding of the walker to the track, strongly influencing walker efficiency and speed. Finally, using the results of the simulations, we propose a number of modifications to the walker to improve its operation.

[Scavenging effect of lazaroids U78517F, U74389F, U74500A on oxygen free radicals produced by stimulated human polymorphonuclear leucocytes and by chemical method] / Effetto scavenger dei lazaroidi U78517F, U74389F, U74500A sui radicali liberi dell'ossigeno prodotti da polimorfonucleati umani stimolati e mediante metodo chimico.

Authors investigated the scavenger capability of lazaroids, a new group of compounds (21-aminosteroid) that are reported in the literature to have interesting anti-lipid peroxidation properties. Authors tested the degree of scavenger activity related to the oxygen derived free radicals (ODFR) with different methods: 1) chemiluminescence; 2) production of superoxide anion from activated polymorphonuclear cells; 3) production of hydroxyl radical through a chemical procedure. Results showed a global scavenger activity of the three lazaroids (U78517F, U74389F, U74500A) in all the various tests, but differences of intensity of their action were noted among in each compound. We can thus attribute to these compounds a scavenger activity on the oxygen free radicals; this activity may facilitate their already known anti-lipid peroxidation action. Therefore, clinical use of lazaroids can be hypothesized for the diseases in which inflammation plays an important pathogenetic role via the production of oxygen free radicals and the resulting lipid peroxidation associated with tissue damage.

Temperature influence on stimulated PMN respiratory burst.

Body temperature can modulate the pathogenesis of infectious, metabolic and autoimmune diseases. This effect has been attributed to several hypothesized mechanisms. Body temperature could play an important role in influencing some cellular functions of human white blood cells. In this work we examined the temperature effect on the respiratory burst in human neutrophils. Human polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) were obtained from heparinized venous blood by dextran sedimentation and erythrocyte lysis with NH4Cl (0.87%). Granulocytes were stimulated with opsonized zymosan (OZ), formyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (FMLP), phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), and monosodium urate (MSU) crystals at different temperatures (26, 37, 39, 40, 42 degrees C). The technique of luminol dependent chemiluminescence (CL) was used as indicator of oxygen free radicals (OFR) release by stimulated cells. OFR production from PMN stimulated with OZ, PMA, FMLP was higher at 37 degrees C than at 26, 39, 40, 42 degrees C (p < 0.001 OZ stimulated PMN at 40-42 degrees C; p < 0.05 PMA stimulated PMN at 42 degrees C. Significantly different from 37 degrees C value). OFR release from PMN stimulated with MSU crystals was significantly increased at 39 degrees C compared to 37 degrees C value (p < 0.001). This effect could not only be attributed to temperature influence on neutrophil activity. The specific polymorphonuclear leukocyte response to the microcrystals and the temperature influence on chemical and physical characteristics of the crystals may play an important role. We are now studying the temperature effect on activity of PMN exposed to others crystals.

Oxygen Radical Scavenger Activity, EPR, NMR, Molecular Mechanics and Extended-Hückel Molecular Orbital Investigation of the Bis(Piroxicam)Copper(II) Complex.

The oxygen radical scavenger activity (ORSA) of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)] (HPir = Piroxicam = 4-hydroxy -2- methyl -N-2- pyridyl -2H- 1,2-benzothiazine -3- carboxamide 1,1-dioxide) was determined by chemiluminescence of samples obtained by mixing human neutrophils (from healthy subjects) and [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] (DMF = N,N -dimethylformammide) in DMSO/GLY/PBS (2:1:2, v/v) solution (DMSO = dimethylsulfoxide, GLY = 1,2,3-propantriol, PBS = Dulbecco's buffer salt solution). The ratio of the residual radicals, for the HPir (1.02.10(-4)M) and [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] (1.08.10(-5)M)/HPir (8.01.10-(-5)M) systems was higher than 12 (not stimulated) [excess of piroxicam was added (Cu/Pir molar ratio approximately 1:10) in order to have most of the metal complexed as bischelate]. In contrast, the ratio of residual radicals for the CuCl(2) (1.00.10(-5)M) and [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] (1.08.10(-5)M)/Hpir (8.01.10(-5)M)system was 5. The [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)] compound is therefore a stronger radical scavenger than either HPir or CuCl(2). A molecular mechanics (MM) analysis of the gas phase structures of neutral HPir, its zwitterionic (HPir(+-)) and anionic (Pir(-)) forms, and some Cu(II)-piroxicam complexes based on X-ray structures allowed calculation of force constants. The most stable structure for HPir has a ZZZ conformation similar to that found in the Cu(II) (and Cd(II) complexes) in the solid state as well as in the gas phase. The structure is stabilized by a strong H bond which involves the N(amide)-H and O(enolic) groups. The MM simulation for the [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] complex showed that two high repulsive intramolecular contacts exist between a pyridyl hydrogen atom of one Pir(-) molecule with the O donor of the other ligand. These interactions activate a transition toward a pseudo-tetrahedral geometry, in the case the apical ligands are removed. On refluxing a suspension of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] in acetone a brown microcystalline solid with the Cu(Pir)(2).0.5DMF stoichiometry was in fact prepared. (13)C spin-lattice relaxation rates of neutral, zwitterionic and anionic piroxicam, in DMSO solution are explained by the thermal equilibrium between the three most stable structures of the three forms, thus confirming the high quality of the force field. The EPR spectrum of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] (DMSO/GLY, 2:1, v/v, 298 and 110 K) agrees with a N2O2+O2 pseudo-octahedral coordination geometry. The EPR spectrum of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2).0.5DMF agrees with a pseudo-tetrahedral coordination geometry. The parameters extracted from the room temperature spectra of the solution phases are in agreement with the data reported for powder and frozen solutions. The extended-Hückel calculations on minimum energy structures of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)(DMF)(2)] and [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)] (square planar) revealed that the HOMOs have a relevant character of d(x) (2)-y(2). On the other hand the HOMO of a computer generated structure for [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)] (pseudo-tetrahedral) has a relevant character of d(xy) atomic orbital. A d(xy) orbital is better suited to allow a dpi-ppi interaction to the O(2) (-) anion. Therefore this work shows that the anti-inflammatory activity of piroxicam could be due in part to the formation of [Cu(II)(Pir)(2)] chelates, which can exert a SOD-like activity.