[Surgical practice in the Mexican Empire]. / El ejercicio de la cirugía en el imperio mexica.

The prehispanic medicines of Mexico are considered as testimony of the splendor of the Meso-American cultures; their great scientific advance and technical allowed them to accumulate a vast collection of clinical and pathological data based on the observation and experimentation. They integrated a nomenclature medical surgical that reflected their advance in those fields of the knowledge, where the anatomy and surgery occupied a preponderant paper. The medicine was known generically as ticiotl, of where it derives the term tícitl for the doctor. In their concept health-illness the limits among the magic, religion and the empiricism for natural causes were not clear, therefore they considered that the divine, human or natural origin of the illnesses influenced in an important way in its nature. Inside this complex causal system, the illnesses caused by the gods, spirits and celestial beings were considered as hot, while those caused by beings of the other realm were cold. The practice of the medicine had a very established organization designing a very advanced system of specialties that allowed them to accumulate a vast experience for the handling of chronic and acute illnesses in different progression phases, which managed with an integral therapy that had a plurality of resources of vegetable origin, animal, and mineral. The surgery was designated as texoxotlaliztli and its cures tepatiliztli. The surgeon was designated as texoxotlaticitl and it developed advanced techniques in the handling of sutures, wounded, drainage of abscesses, fractures and joint dislocations, pterygium, tonsillitis, circumcision, and amputations.

[Penile calciphylaxis: case report and literature review]. / Calcifilaxis del pene: reporte de un caso y revisión de la bibliografía.

BACKGROUND: Calciphylaxis is a serious condition characterized by ischemic ulceration of the skin and necrosis secondary to dystrophic calcification of the subcutaneous tissue and small arteries. It affects primarily patients with end-stage renal disease with prevalence up to 4%. However, penile calciphylaxis has been reported in only 37 cases in the international literature. We report one case, to review the literature and to provide the basis for a rational treatment of calciphylaxis of the penis that reduces the associated mortality. CASE REPORT: We report the case of an 82-year-old male with a 15-year history of type 2 diabetes mellitus and renal insufficiency during the past 2 years. He presented an increase of consistency of the distal portion in the penis' glans and scrotal swelling, evolving to complete penile glans necrosis. CONCLUSIONS: With the increase of the number of patients on dialysis treatment, the prevalence of calciphylaxis will increase. A high index of suspicion is warranted in all patients with end-stage renal disease and who present the characteristic genital lesions. Treatment of this complication must include avoidance of all exogenous calcium, administration of calcitriol analogues to offset the PTH, emergency parathyroidectomy in the case of overt hyperparathyroidism and aggressive surgical treatment with total or partial penectomy.

[Distinguished doctors of the University of Padua and their works: 16th to 18th centuries]. / Médicos notables de la Universidad de Padua y sus obras. Siglos XVI a XVIII.

Italian universities have been distinguished since their beginnings, within different specialties. One of them, if not the most important, is the teaching of medicine. One of the leaders is the University of Padua, founded in 1222, establishing itself as the second most important institution after the University of Bologna. In spite of the difficulties faced by this university, as with most other universities during the medieval period, it continued to perform and consolidate once again during the Renaissance as one of the most outstanding universities in Europe. The University of Bologna and the University of Padua shared the leadership in teaching during this period. At the University of Padua, the lectures were always full with teachers and students of great fame, such as Andreas Vesalio, Gabriele Falopio, William Harvey, Giovanni Battista Morgagni, Antonio Scarpa, to name just a few. In this article we discuss the rights the University had since it beginnings, from its establishment to the Renaissance, and the great influence of some of the teachers and students in the art and science of medicine.

[Tagliacozzi: not just a plastic surgeon]. / Tagliacozzi: no sólo cirujano plástico.

Gaspare Tagliacozzi is known because of his great contributions to plastic surgery. He is considered a pioneer in the field, which has had more influence in his career than his other transcendental activity as a surgery and anatomy teacher in Bologna for almost 30 years. The aim of the present manuscript is to analyze his teaching activities which were equally important for us, and to recreate, with pictorial means, three unpublished historic moments in the life of this great man of science. Gaspare Tagliacozzi was born in Bologna in 1545 and is considered the father of plastic surgery. He obtained a degree in medicine and philosophy at the University. He was named surgery professor in 1576, and worked as such until his death in 1599. His De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem treatise was published in 1589 and was considered the first exclusive treatise on plastic surgery. Bologna built a permanent operating theater (amphitheater) within the Archiginnasio in 1595. Because of his success, he increased his earnings; his first university teaching salary was 100 lire, but his earning increased to 1,140 lire later. Tagliacozzi's contributions, together with that of others such as Vesalius, Aldrovandi, Fallopian and Eustachian advanced the field and knowledge of anatomy.

Fundación y organización de la Universidad de Bolonia desde el siglo XII al Renacimiento / Foundation and organization of the University of Bologna from the XII century to the Renaissance

La enseñanza organizada proporcionada por juristas y asociaciones estudiantiles da inicio a la Universidad de Bolonia en 1150. El prestigio de ésta como centro de excelencia en el estudio del derecho, alentó a otros profesores eruditos a desplazarse a esa ciudad, de modo que ars dictaminis, gramática, lógica, filosofía aristotélica, matemáticas y medicina, eran enseñadas en el siglo XIII. Esta universidad fue la más grande de Italia durante el Renacimiento; tuvo un crecimiento continuo y en 1530 la matrícula se estabilizó entre 95 y 100 profesores. En la universidad había un mínimo de ocho catedráticos que enseñaban derecho civil, derecho canónico, medicina, lógica, filosofía natural y retórica. La enseñanza de la medicina fue iniciada por Tadeo Alderotti. En 1400, la Facultad de Medicina comprendía un curriculum de cuatro años en el que se cursaba medicina teórica, medicina práctica y cirugía, permaneciendo así hasta 1600, cuando se agregan botánica médica, anatomía y cirugía, y medicina clínica; cada una dividida en primo lectione y secunda lectione. Los libros de Galeno, Avicena e Hipócrates eran los más usados. La población estudiantil tenía un carácter internacional: 73 % correspondía a estudiantes de otros territorios italianos y 26 % procedía de otras naciones transalpinas. En la matrícula de profesores y alumnos destacan figuras de renombre, que gracias a la naturaleza de sus investigaciones en anatomía general y especial, embriología y cirugía, elaboraron obras cimeras que sentaron las bases científicas para la enseñanza y evolución de la cirugía.

The University of Bologna was founded in 1150 and was the first European University to establish this educational trend. The combination of structured teaching and student associations marked the origin of the studium generale. The presence of teaching legists encouraged teachers in others fields to come to Bologna. Ars dictaminis, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematics and especially medicine were taught there by the middle of the thirteenth century. The university offered advanced instruction in law, medicine, and theology and had a minimum of six to eight professors teaching civil law, canonical law, medicine, logic, natural philosophy and usually rhetoric. Many professors bearing local names were learned scholars and commanding figures in medicine and surgery. Taddeo Alderotti (1210-1295) began to teach medicine in Bologna in about 1260. He soon raised medicine to a prestigious position in the university. The geographical distribution demonstrates the international distribution of the student body: 73% were Italians and 26% non-Italians. The decision of the legislature of Bologna to take control of the university from the students by paying professors was probably the most important decision in the history of Italian universities. Examination of the distribution of professors offers a detailed picture of the faculty. In 1370 the university had 11 professors of civil law, 7 professors of canonical law, 3 professors of medical theory, 2 professors of medical practice (specifically of diagnosis and treatment), and 1 professor of surgery. After growing steadily, the numbers of teachers stabilized at 85 to 110 until the year 1530.

Tagliacozzi: no sólo cirujano plástico / Tagliacozzi: not just a plastic surgeon

Gaspare Tagliacozzi es tan conocido por sus grandes aportaciones como pionero de la Cirugía Plástica, que ha opacado en buena parte otra actividad trascendental que desarrolló, durante casi 30 años fue profesor de Cirugía y Anatomía en Bolonia. El objetivo de este artículo es analizar su actividad docente, considerada igualmente importante, y recrear mediante recursos pictóricos, tres momentos históricos importantes en la vida académica de este personaje. Gaspare Tagliacozzi nació en Bolonia en 1545. Es considerado padre de la cirugía plástica. Obtuvo el grado de Doctor en Medicina y Filosofía en la universidad. Fue nombrado profesor de Cirugía en 1576, actividad que realizó hasta su muerte en 1599. Publicó su libro De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem considerado el primer tratado exclusivo de Cirugía Plástica. Como profesor, Tagliacozzi realizó disecciones formales en la universidad. Su éxito docente lo revela su estipendio: él comenzó ganando 100 liras, que se elevaron a 1140. Sus aportaciones, junto a las de muchos otros (Vesalio, Aldrovani, Falopio, Eustaquio etc.) dieron brillo a los conocimientos anatómicos.

Gaspare Tagliacozzi is known because of his great contributions to plastic surgery. He is considered a pioneer in the field, which has had more influence in his career than his other transcendental activity as a surgery and anatomy teacher in Bologna for almost 30 years. The aim of the present manuscript is to analyze his teaching activities which were equally important for us, and to recreate, with pictorial means, three unpublished historic moments in the life of this great man of science. Gaspare Tagliacozzi was born in Bologna in 1545 and is considered the father of plastic surgery. He obtained a degree in medicine and philosophy at the University. He was named surgery professor in 1576, and worked as such until his death in 1599. His De Curtorum Chirurgia per Insitionem treatise was published in 1589 and was considered the first exclusive treatise on plastic surgery. Bologna built a permanent operating theater (amphitheater) within the Archiginnasio in 1595. Because of his success, he increased his earnings; his first university teaching salary was 100 lire, but his earning increased to 1,140 lire later. Tagliacozzi's contributions, together with that of others such as Vesalius, Aldrovandi, Fallopian and Eustachian advanced the field and knowledge of anatomy.

[Teaching of medicine of the University of Bologna in the Reinaissance]. / La enseñanza de la Medicina en la Universidad de Bolonia en el Renacimiento.

The foundation date of the University of Bologna was 1150, was the first European University and set the pattern. The combination of structured teaching and students association marked the origin of the studium generale. The presence of teaching legists encouraged teachers in others fields to come to Bologna. Ars dictaminis, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematical arts and especially medicine were taught there by the middle of the thirteenth century. The university had to offer advanced instruction in law, medicine, and theology, had a minimum of six to eight professors teaching civil law, canon law, medicine, logic, natural philosophy and usually rhetoric. Many professors bearing local names were able scholars and commanding figures in medicine and surgery. Taddeo Alderotti (1210-95) began to teach medicine in Bologna about 1260. He soon raised medicine to a prestigious position in the university. The geographical distribution demonstrates the international character of the student body 73% were Italians and 26% non Italians. The decision of the commune of Bologna to wrest control of the university from the students by paying professors was probably the most important decision in the history of Italian universities. Examination of the distribution of professors offers a detailed picture of the faculty. In 1370 the university had 11 professors of civil law, seven professors of canon law, three professors of medical theory, two of medical practice (the specific of diagnosis and treatment), and one professor of surgery. After growing steadily the numbers of teachers stabilized at 85 to 110 until 1530.

La enseñanza de la Medicina en la Universidad de Bolonia en el Renacimiento / Teaching of medicine of the University of Bologna in the Renaissance

The foundation date of the University of Bologna was 1150, was the first European University and set the pattern. The combination of structured teaching and students association marked the origin of the studium genérale. The presence of teaching legists encouraged teachers in others fields to come to Bologna. Ars dictaminis, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematical arts and especially medicine were taught there by the middle of the thirteenth century. The university had to offer advanced instruction in law, medicine, and theology, had a minimum of six to eight professors teaching civil law, canon law, medicine, logic, natural philosophy and usually rhetoric. Many professors bearing local names were able scholars and commanding figures in medicine and surgery. Taddeo Alderotti (1210-95) began to teach medicine in Bologna about 1260. He soon raised medicine to a prestigious position in the university. The geographical distribution demonstrates the international character of the student body 73% were italians and 26% non Italians. The decision of the commune of Bologna to wrest control of the university from the students by paying professors was probably the most important decision in the history of Italian universities. Examination of the distribution of professors offers a detailed picture of the faculty. In 1370 the university had 11 professors of civil law, seven professors of canon law, three professors of medical theory, two of medical practice (the specific of diagnosis and treatment), and one professor of surgery. After growing steadily the numbers of teachers stabilized at 85 to 110 until 1530.

La enseñanza organizada proporcionada por juristas y las asociaciones estudiantiles da inicio a la Universidad de Bolonia en 1150. Su prestigio como centro de excelencia en el estudio del derecho, alentó a otros profesores eruditos a desplazarse a esa ciudad de modo que Ars dictaminis, gramática, lógica, filosofía aristotélica, matemáticas y medicina eran enseñadas en el siglo XIII. Esta universidad fue la más grande de Italia durante el Renacimiento; tuvo un crecimiento continuo, la matrícula se estabilizó entre 95 y 100 profesores en 1530. En la universidad había un mínimo de ocho catedráticos que enseñaban derecho civil, derecho canónico, medicina, lógica, filosofía natural y retórica. La enseñanza de la medicina fue iniciada por Tadeo Alderotti. La Facultad de Medicina en 1400 comprendía un curriculum de cuatro años cursando medicina teórica, medicina práctica, y cirugía, permaneciendo estable hasta 1600 donde se agregan botánica médica, anatomía y cirugía, y medicina clínica. Cada una dividida en primo lectione y secunda lectione, los libros de Galeno, Avicena e Hipócrates eran los más usados. La población estudiantil tenía un carácter internacional, 73% correspondía a estudiantes extranjeros dentro del territorio italiano y 26% procedían de otras naciones transalpinas. En la matrícula de profesores y alumnos destacan figuras de renombre que gracias a la naturaleza de sus investigaciones en anatomía general y especial, embriología y cirugía, elaboraron obras cimeras que sentaron las bases científicas para la enseñanza y evolución de la cirugía.

[Foundation and organization of the University of Bologna from the XII century to the Renaissance]. / Fundación y organización de la Universidad de Bolonia desde el siglo XII al Renacimiento.

The University of Bologna was founded in 1150 and was the first European University to establish this educational trend. The combination of structured teaching and student associations marked the origin of the studium generale. The presence of teaching legists encouraged teachers in others fields to come to Bologna. Ars dictaminis, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematics and especially medicine were taught there by the middle of the thirteenth century. The university offered advanced instruction in law, medicine, and theology and had a minimum of six to eight professors teaching civil law, canonical law, medicine, logic, natural philosophy and usually rhetoric. Many professors bearing local names were learned scholars and commanding figures in medicine and surgery. Taddeo Alderotti (1210-1295) began to teach medicine in Bologna in about 1260. He soon raised medicine to a prestigious position in the university. The geographical distribution demonstrates the international distribution of the student body: 73% were Italians and 26% non-Italians. The decision of the legislature of Bologna to take control of the university from the students by paying professors was probably the most important decision in the history of Italian universities. Examination of the distribution of professors offers a detailed picture of the faculty. In 1370 the university had 11 professors of civil law, 7 professors of canonical law, 3 professors of medical theory, 2 professors of medical practice (specifically of diagnosis and treatment), and 1 professor of surgery. After growing steadily, the numbers of teachers stabilized at 85 to 110 until the year 1530.

[Maffucci's syndrome. Case reports and literature review]. / Síndrome de Maffucci. Informe de dos pacientes y revisión de la literatura.

Maffucci syndrome is a rare, congenital disease, which is associated with the appearance of multiple enchondromas (possibility of malignant transformation in 20 to 100%), soft tissue hemangiomas and other mesenchymatous injuries. Case 1 is a 33-year-old female who presented with multiple nodules predominantly in upper extremities. Upon examination, there was deformity in articulation and nodules on the hands, which were soft and moveable. There were bony shavings in the second and fourth fingers of the left hand (enchondromas and atypical cells associated with hemangioma esclerosante). Maffucci syndrome was diagnosed. Later, excision of subcutaneous nodules in superior extremities was performed along with excision of nodules in both hands and hypochondrium (enchondroma injuries of left hand and hypochondrium, hemangioma in right hand). There was dysarticulation of the second finger at the metacarpal level of the phalanges of the left hand (chondrosarcoma). The patient is being followed up currently. Case 2 is a 26-year-old female. The patient had a history of subcutaneous abdominal tumor, exostosis, nodules and nodule in right breast. Upon examination, a tumor was found in the right breast, exostosis of right tibia, injury to the right wrist and left thyroid nodule. A simple mastectomy and axillary dissection was performed (fibroadenoma to intracanalicular and 14 negative lymph nodes). Later, left thyroidectomy and lumpectomy in right wrist were performed (hyperplasia to nodular thyroid and hemangioma cavernous). There was injury in the carpus of the right hand and elbow (hemangioma cavernous and synovial tissue with fibrosis and enchondroma). A diagnosis was made of Marffucci syndrome associated with mesenchymatous tumors. The patient was in poor general health and did not survive this hospitalization.

[Surgery and anatomy in the Renaissance]. / La cátedra de cirugía y anatomía en el Renacimiento.

The interest in the physical perfection and the corporal forms brings as a result the creation of new anatomical studies. The anatomical knowledge progressed in the second half of the XV century, conceiving the knowledge of the human body as a basic reality of Medicine. One of the greater contributions of the Italian Universities to medicine was the teaching of anatomy. The Universities of Padua, Bologna, and Pisa educated in their classrooms great physicians like Andres Vesalio, Gabriel Fallopio, Realdo Colombo, Mondino de Luzzi, Julio Ceasar Aranzio, and Gaspare Tagliacozzi, among others. The teaching of anatomy during the Renaissance was characterized by the development of dissection techniques and autopsy practice, which was recognized as an extremely valuable skill for anatomical study. The dissections were made in circular amphitheatres in the following way: a Medicine professor read the text book, another one made the dissection, and a third one indicated the structures referred.

[Contributions of Herodotus to surgery within the historiographic analysis of his Histories]. / Contribuciones de Herodoto a la cirugía en el análisis historiográfico de sus Historias.

During the splendor of Athens, Herodotus of Helicarnasus develops his life and work in the V century B.C. that led him to be considered the father of history. The available knowledge of ancient medicine and surgery is based on the descriptions of authors such as Homer, Herodotus, Hippocrates, and Plinius. Herodotus, a contemporary of Hippocrates, in his Histories, defines the limit between the epic narratives of Homer and the beginning of scientific history based on observation, reflection, and analysis. He develops an erudite, objective, and clear narrative of facts that allow him to discover the causes in order to determine their consequences in society. He describes the magic-religious model of the health-disease process, etiology, diagnostic methods, and treatment for diseases in ancient towns. He makes a description of Egyptian medicine, particularly about medical specialization, embalmment, and common diseases. He emphasizes surgical procedures: circumcision, castration, amputations of ears, nose and hands, ocular evisceration and mastectomies (punishments) and describes traumatic wounds, their prognosis and treatment. He also mentions the names and actions of the most famous physicians of the time. Herodotus lived the cultural decadence of Ionia, his native land, at the time of economic and intellectual hegemony of Athens. His work is universal and has the purposes of projection to the future and to seek causes.