Plant reproduction research in Latin America: Toward sustainable agriculture in a changing environment.

Food production and food security depend on the ability of crops to cope with anthropogenic climate change and successfully produce seed. To guarantee food production well into the future, contemporary plant scientists in Latin America must carry out research on how plants respond to environmental stressors such as temperature, drought, and salinity. This review shows the opportunities to apply these results locally and abroad and points to the gaps that still exist in terms of reproductive processes with the purpose to better link research with translational work in plant breeding and biotechnology. Suggestions are put forth to address these gaps creatively in the face of chronic low investment in science with a focus on applicability.

Crossover interference mechanism: New lessons from plants.

Plants are the source of our understanding of several fundamental biological principles. It is well known that Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of Genetics in peas and that maize was used for the discovery of transposons by Barbara McClintock. Plant models are still useful for the understanding of general key biological concepts. In this article, we will focus on discussing the recent plant studies that have shed new light on the mysterious mechanisms of meiotic crossover (CO) interference, heterochiasmy, obligatory CO, and CO homeostasis. Obligatory CO is necessary for the equilibrated segregation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The tight control of the different male and female CO rates (heterochiasmy) enables both the maximization and minimization of genome shuffling. An integrative model can now predict these observed aspects of CO patterning in plants. The mechanism proposed considers the Synaptonemal Complex as a canalizing structure that allows the diffusion of a class I CO limiting factor linearly on synapsed bivalents. The coarsening of this limiting factor along the SC explains the interfering spacing between COs. The model explains the observed coordinated processes between synapsis, CO interference, CO insurance, and CO homeostasis. It also easily explains heterochiasmy just considering the different male and female SC lengths. This mechanism is expected to be conserved in other species.

The Formation of Bivalents and the Control of Plant Meiotic Recombination.

During the first meiotic division, the segregation of homologous chromosomes depends on the physical association of the recombined homologous DNA molecules. The physical tension due to the sites of crossing-overs (COs) is essential for the meiotic spindle to segregate the connected homologous chromosomes to the opposite poles of the cell. This equilibrated partition of homologous chromosomes allows the first meiotic reductional division. Thus, the segregation of homologous chromosomes is dependent on their recombination. In this review, we will detail the recent advances in the knowledge of the mechanisms of recombination and bivalent formation in plants. In plants, the absence of meiotic checkpoints allows observation of subsequent meiotic events in absence of meiotic recombination or defective meiotic chromosomal axis formation such as univalent formation instead of bivalents. Recent discoveries, mainly made in Arabidopsis, rice, and maize, have highlighted the link between the machinery of double-strand break (DSB) formation and elements of the chromosomal axis. We will also discuss the implications of what we know about the mechanisms regulating the number and spacing of COs (obligate CO, CO homeostasis, and interference) in model and crop plants.

Conservation and divergence of meiotic DNA double strand break forming mechanisms in Arabidopsis thaliana.

In the current meiotic recombination initiation model, the SPO11 catalytic subunits associate with MTOPVIB to form a Topoisomerase VI-like complex that generates DNA double strand breaks (DSBs). Four additional proteins, PRD1/AtMEI1, PRD2/AtMEI4, PRD3/AtMER2 and the plant specific DFO are required for meiotic DSB formation. Here we show that (i) MTOPVIB and PRD1 provide the link between the catalytic sub-complex and the other DSB proteins, (ii) PRD3/AtMER2, while localized to the axis, does not assemble a canonical pre-DSB complex but establishes a direct link between the DSB-forming and resection machineries, (iii) DFO controls MTOPVIB foci formation and is part of a divergent RMM-like complex including PHS1/AtREC114 and PRD2/AtMEI4 but not PRD3/AtMER2, (iv) PHS1/AtREC114 is absolutely unnecessary for DSB formation despite having a conserved position within the DSB protein network and (v) MTOPVIB and PRD2/AtMEI4 interact directly with chromosome axis proteins to anchor the meiotic DSB machinery to the axis.

Dynamic localization of SPO11-1 and conformational changes of meiotic axial elements during recombination initiation of maize meiosis.

Meiotic double-strand breaks (DSBs) are generated by the evolutionarily conserved SPO11 complex in the context of chromatin loops that are organized along axial elements (AEs) of chromosomes. However, how DSBs are formed with respect to chromosome axes and the SPO11 complex remains unclear in plants. Here, we confirm that DSB and bivalent formation are defective in maize spo11-1 mutants. Super-resolution microscopy demonstrates dynamic localization of SPO11-1 during recombination initiation, with variable numbers of SPO11-1 foci being distributed in nuclei but similar numbers of SPO11-1 foci being found on AEs. Notably, cytological analysis of spo11-1 meiocytes revealed an aberrant AE structure. At leptotene, AEs of wild-type and spo11-1 meiocytes were similarly curly and discontinuous. However, during early zygotene, wild-type AEs become uniform and exhibit shortened axes, whereas the elongated and curly AEs persisted in spo11-1 mutants, suggesting that loss of SPO11-1 compromised AE structural maturation. Our results reveal an interesting relationship between SPO11-1 loading onto AEs and the conformational remodeling of AEs during recombination initiation.

Whole-Mount Immunolocalization Procedure for Plant Female Meiocytes.

Here we present an optimized protocol for immunolocalization of meiotic proteins during female meiosis in whole mount tissues. It ensures ovule morphology integrity and homogeneous reagent penetration. The method relies on paraformaldehyde tissue fixation, polyacrylamide embedding, tissue permeabilization, antibody incubation, counterstaining, and confocal microscopy analysis. This protocol has been used in diverse Arabidopsis ecotypes and in the legume Vigna unguiculata.

Identification of ASYNAPTIC4, a Component of the Meiotic Chromosome Axis.

During the leptotene stage of prophase I of meiosis, chromatids become organized into a linear looped array via a protein axis that forms along the loop bases. Establishment of the axis is essential for the subsequent synapsis of the homologous chromosome pairs and the progression of recombination to form genetic crossovers. Here, we describe ASYNAPTIC4 (ASY4), a meiotic axis protein in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). ASY4 is a small coiled-coil protein that exhibits limited sequence similarity with the carboxyl-terminal region of the axis protein ASY3. We used enhanced yellow fluorescent protein-tagged ASY4 to show that ASY4 localizes to the chromosome axis throughout prophase I. Bimolecular fluorescence complementation revealed that ASY4 interacts with ASY1 and ASY3, and yeast two-hybrid analysis confirmed a direct interaction between ASY4 and ASY3. Mutants lacking full-length ASY4 exhibited defective axis formation and were unable to complete synapsis. Although the initiation of recombination appeared to be unaffected in the asy4 mutant, the number of crossovers was reduced significantly, and crossovers tended to group in the distal parts of the chromosomes. We conclude that ASY4 is required for normal axis and crossover formation. Furthermore, our data suggest that ASY3/ASY4 are the functional homologs of the mammalian SYCP2/SYCP3 axial components.

Whole-mount immunolocalization to study female meiosis in Arabidopsis.

Here we describe a whole-mount immunolocalization protocol to follow the subcellular localization of proteins during female meiosis in Arabidopsis thaliana, a model species that is used to study sexual reproduction in flowering plants. By using confocal microscopy, the procedure allows one to follow megasporogenesis at all stages before differentiation of the functional megaspore. This in particular includes stages that occur during prophase I, such as the installation of the axial and central elements of the synaptonemal complex along the meiotic chromosomes. In contrast to procedures that require microtome sectioning or enzymatic isolation and smearing to separate female meiocytes from neighboring cells, this 3-day protocol preserves the constitution of the developing primordium and incorporates the architecture of the ovule to provide a temporal and spatial context to meiotic divisions. This opens up the possibility to systematically compare the dynamics of protein localization during female and male meiosis. Steps describe tissue collection and fixation, preparation of slides and polyacrylamide embedding, tissue permeabilization, antibody incubation, propidium iodide staining, and finally image acquisition by confocal microscopy. The procedure adds an essential technique to the toolkit of plant meiotic analysis, and it represents a framework for technical adaptations that could soon allow the analysis of plant reproductive alternatives to sexual reproduction.

Meiosis, unreduced gametes, and parthenogenesis: implications for engineering clonal seed formation in crops.

KEY MESSAGE: Meiosis and unreduced gametes. Sexual flowering plants produce meiotically derived cells that give rise to the male and female haploid gametophytic phase. In the ovule, usually a single precursor (the megaspore mother cell) undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspores; however, numerous mutants result in the formation of unreduced gametes, sometimes showing female specificity, a phenomenon reminiscent of the initiation of gametophytic apomixis. Here, we review the developmental events that occur during female meiosis and megasporogenesis at the light of current possibilities to engineer unreduced gamete formation. We also provide an overview of the current understanding of mechanisms leading to parthenogenesis and discuss some of the conceptual implications for attempting the induction of clonal seed production in cultivated plants.

Sufficient amounts of functional HOP2/MND1 complex promote interhomolog DNA repair but are dispensable for intersister DNA repair during meiosis in Arabidopsis.

During meiosis, homologous recombination (HR) is essential to repair programmed DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), and a dedicated protein machinery ensures that the homologous chromosome is favored over the nearby sister chromatid as a repair template. The homologous-pairing protein2/meiotic nuclear division protein1 (HOP2/MND1) protein complex has been identified as a crucial factor of meiotic HR in Arabidopsis thaliana, since loss of either MND1 or HOP2 results in failure of DNA repair. We isolated two mutant alleles of HOP2 (hop2-2 and hop2-3) that retained the capacity to repair meiotic DSBs via the sister chromatid but failed to use the homologous chromosome. We show that in these alleles, the recombinases radiation sensitive51 (RAD51) and disrupted meiotic cDNA1 (DMC1) are loaded, but only the intersister DNA repair pathway is activated. The hop2-2 phenotype is correlated with a decrease in HOP2/MND1 complex abundance. In hop2-3, a truncated HOP2 protein is produced that retains its ability to bind to DMC1 and DNA but forms less stable complexes with MND1 and fails to efficiently stimulate DMC1-driven D-loop formation. Genetic analyses demonstrated that in the absence of DMC1, HOP2/MND1 is dispensable for RAD51-mediated intersister DNA repair, while in the presence of DMC1, a minimal amount of functional HOP2/MND1 is essential to drive intersister DNA repair.

Global transcriptome analysis of two ameiotic1 alleles in maize anthers: defining steps in meiotic entry and progression through prophase I.

BACKGROUND: Developmental cues to start meiosis occur late in plants. Ameiotic1 (Am1) encodes a plant-specific nuclear protein (AM1) required for meiotic entry and progression through early prophase I. Pollen mother cells (PMCs) remain mitotic in most am1 mutants including am1-489, while am1-praI permits meiotic entry but PMCs arrest at the leptotene/zygotene (L/Z) transition, defining the roles of AM1 protein in two distinct steps of meiosis. To gain more insights into the roles of AM1 in the transcriptional pre-meiotic and meiotic programs, we report here an in depth analysis of gene expression alterations in carefully staged anthers at 1 mm (meiotic entry) and 1.5 mm (L/Z) caused by each of these am1 alleles. RESULTS: 1.0 mm and 1.5 mm anthers of am1-489 and am1-praI were profiled in comparison to fertile siblings on Agilent® 4 × 44 K microarrays. Both am1-489 and am1-praI anthers are cytologically normal at 1.0 mm and show moderate transcriptome alterations. At the 1.5-mm stage both mutants are aberrant cytologically, and show more drastic transcriptome changes. There are substantially more absolute On/Off and twice as many differentially expressed genes (sterile versus fertile) in am1-489 than in am1-praI. At 1.5 mm a total of 4,418 genes are up- or down-regulated in either am1-489 or am1-praI anthers. These are predominantly stage-specific transcripts. Many putative meiosis-related genes were found among them including a small subset of allele-specific, mis-regulated genes specific to the PMCs. Nearly 60% of transcriptome changes in the set of transcripts mis-regulated in both mutants (N = 530) are enriched in PMCs, and only 1% are enriched in the tapetal cell transcriptome. All array data reported herein will be deposited and accessible at MaizeGDB http://www.maizegdb.org/. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis of anther transcriptome modulations by two distinct am1 alleles, am1-489 and am1-praI, redefines the role of AM1 as a modulator of expression of a subset of meiotic genes, important for meiotic progression and provided stage-specific insights into the genetic networks associated with meiotic entry and early prophase I progression.

PHS1 regulates meiotic recombination and homologous chromosome pairing by controlling the transport of RAD50 to the nucleus.

Recombination and pairing of homologous chromosomes are critical for bivalent formation in meiotic prophase. In many organisms, including yeast, mammals, and plants, pairing and recombination are intimately interconnected. The POOR HOMOLOGOUS SYNAPSIS1 (PHS1) gene acts in coordination of chromosome pairing and early recombination steps in plants, ensuring pairing fidelity and proper repair of meiotic DNA double-strand-breaks. In phs1 mutants, chromosomes exhibit early recombination defects and frequently associate with non-homologous partners, instead of pairing with their proper homologs. Here, we show that the product of the PHS1 gene is a cytoplasmic protein that functions by controlling transport of RAD50 from cytoplasm to the nucleus. RAD50 is a component of the MRN protein complex that processes meiotic double-strand-breaks to produce single-stranded DNA ends, which act in the homology search and recombination. We demonstrate that PHS1 plays the same role in homologous pairing in both Arabidopsis and maize, whose genomes differ dramatically in size and repetitive element content. This suggests that PHS1 affects pairing of the gene-rich fraction of the genome rather than preventing pairing between repetitive DNA elements. We propose that PHS1 is part of a system that regulates the progression of meiotic prophase by controlling entry of meiotic proteins into the nucleus. We also document that in phs1 mutants in Arabidopsis, centromeres interact before pairing commences along chromosome arms. Centromere coupling was previously observed in yeast and polyploid wheat while our data suggest that it may be a more common feature of meiosis.

The alpha-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase gene is transcriptionally activated in male and female gametes prior to fertilization and is essential for seed development in Arabidopsis.

Sugar residues in proteoglycan complexes carry important signalling and regulatory functions in biology. In humans, heparan sulphate is an example of such a complex polymer containing glucosamine and N-acetyl-glucosamine residues and is present in the extracellular matrix. Although heparan sulphate has not been found in plants, the At5g13690 gene encoding the alpha-N-acetyl-glucosaminidase (NAGLU), an enzyme involved in its catabolism, is present in the Arabidopsis genome. Among our collection of embryo-defective lines, a plant was identified in which the T-DNA had inserted into the AtNAGLU gene. The phenotype of atnaglu is an early arrest of seed development without apparent male or female gametophytic effects. These data demonstrated the essential function in Arabidopsis consistent with the contribution of NAGLU to the Sanfilippo syndrome in human. Expression of AtNAGLU in plants was shown to be prevalent during reproductive development. The presence of AtNAGLU mRNA was observed during early and late male gametogenesis and in each cell of the embryo sac at the time of fertilization. After fertilization, AtNAGLU was expressed in the embryo, suspensor, and endosperm until the cotyledonary stage embryo. This precise pattern of expression identifies the cells and tissues where a remodelling of the N-acetyl-glucosamine residues of proteoglycan complexes is occurring. This work provides original evidence of the important role of N-acetyl-glucosamines in plant reproductive development.

Redrawing the borderline: Control of DNA replication at fertilization.

In our recent paper in Plant Journal, we described the transcriptional activation of AtTMPK (thymidylate kinase),1 a recognized G(1)/S phase marker of the cell cycle progression and its role in early seed development. Here, we compare our conclusions on the regulation of AtTMPK and those of other genes participating in DNA replication, including DPB2, a subunit of the DNA polymerase epsilon complex.2 Although, the dual localisation of AtTMPK in the cytosol and mitochondria seems to be unique to plants, this phenomenon of multiple targeting is also used for other proteins involved in DNA replication, such as DNA ligase 1 (AtLIG1), and may represent a way to coordinate nuclear and organellar divisions.

The first zygotic division in Arabidopsis requires de novo transcription of thymidylate kinase.

Re-activation of cell division after fertilization involves the specific regulation of a set of genes. To identify genes involved in the gametophytic to sporophytic transition, we screened Arabidopsis T-DNA insertion lines for early seed abortion at the zygote (zeus) or one-cell embryo stages (cyclops), and characterized a sporophytic zygote-lethal mutation, zeus1. ZEUS1 encodes a thymidylate kinase (AtTMPK) that synthesizes dTDP and is involved in the regulation of DNA replication. Unlike in yeast and animals, the single AtTMPK gene is capable of producing two proteins by alternative splicing; the longer isoform is targeted to the mitochondria, the shorter to the cytosol. Transcription of AtTMPK is activated during the G(1)/S-phase transition of the cell cycle, similarly to yeast and mammalian orthologues. In AtTMPK:GUS plants, the reporter gene was preferentially expressed in cells undergoing division, but was not detected during the male and female gametophytic mitoses. GUS expression was observed in mature embryo sacs prior to fertilization, and this expression may indicate the time of synchronization of the gamete cell-cycle phases. Identification of ZEU1 emphasizes the importance of control of the metabolism of DNA in the regulation of the G(1)/S-phase transition at fertilization.

In the beginning: the initiation of meiosis.

The most-critical point of reproductive development in all sexually reproducing species is the transition from mitotic to meiotic cell cycle. Studies in unicellular fungi have indicated that the decision to enter meiosis must be made before the beginning of the premeiotic S phase. Recent data from the mouse suggest that this timing of meiosis initiation is a universal feature shared also by multicellular eukaryotes. In contrast, the signaling cascade that leads to meiosis initiation shows great diversity among species.

Genetic analysis of two Arabidopsis DNA polymerase epsilon subunits during early embryogenesis.

Accurate DNA replication is one of the most important events in the life of a cell. To perform this task, the cell utilizes several DNA polymerase complexes. We investigated the role of DNA polymerase epsilon during gametophyte and seed development using forward and reverse genetic approaches. In Arabidopsis, the catalytic subunit of this complex is encoded by two genes, AtPOL2a and AtPOL2b, whereas the second largest regulatory subunit AtDPB2 is present as a unique complete copy. Disruption of AtPOL2a or AtDPB2 resulted in a sporophytic embryo-defective phenotype, whilst mutations in AtPOL2b produced no visible effects. Loss of AtDPB2 function resulted in a severe reduction in nuclear divisions, both in the embryo and in the endosperm. Mutations in AtPOL2a allowed several rounds of mitosis to proceed, often with aberrant planes of division. Moreover, AtDPB2 was not expressed during development of the female gametophyte, which requires three post-meiotic nuclear divisions. Since a consensus binding site for E2F transcription factors was identified in the promoter region of both genes, the promoter-reporter fusion technique was used to show that luciferase activity was increased at specific phases of the cell cycle in synchronized tobacco BY-2 cells. Our results support the idea that fertilization may utilize the mechanisms of cell cycle transcriptional regulation of genes to reactivate the divisions of the oosphere and central cell.