Dysphagia, Fear of Choking and Preventive Measures in Patients with Huntington's Disease: The Perspectives of Patients and Caregivers in Long-Term Care.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the prevalence of dysphagia and fear of choking in patients with Huntington's disease (HD) as well as preventive measures, both those applied and those not included in managing dysphagia. Also, to investigate related problems encountered by their formal and informal caregivers. DESIGN: A multi-center observational cross-sectional study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: 158 HD patients, recruited from six Dutch nursing homes specialized in HD, and their formal and informal caregivers. MEASUREMENTS: Patients were assessed by means of questionnaires enquiring about dysphagia, fear of choking and measures to manage dysphagia. Also, questionnaires were administered about awareness of dysphagia symptoms, cognition and anxiety. Because we expected individuals with greater care dependency to have a higher severity of dysphagia, we distinguished between a care-independent and a care-dependent group of HD patients. RESULTS: In the total group, 90.5% of HD patients had one or more dysphagia symptoms. The prevalence of FoC in HD patients and the formal and informal caregivers' fears about choking in HD patients was 45.7%, 19.0% and 59.5%, respectively, for care-independent patients and 58.7%, 50.1% and 77.5% for care-dependent patients. The score on the Huntington's Disease Dysphagia Scale was a predictor for fear of FoC in care-independent patients. Speech-language therapy, supervision during eating and drinking and adaptation of food and drink consistency were the most frequently applied measures to manage dysphagia, a combination was used in most HD patients. CONCLUSIONS: In HD patients, the prevalence of dysphagia is high and fear of choking is common among both patients and caregivers. A more severe degree of dysphagia is a predictor of FoC in care-independent HD patients. A combination of measures was used to manage dysphagia in most HD patients.

Are patients accurate forecasters of their emotional response to medical conditions? A scoping review on affective forecasting.

OBJECTIVE: In this paper, we challenge the premise that patients are capable of accurately predicting their emotional response or quality of life in anticipation of health changes. Our goal was to systematically review the published empirical evidence related to the reliability of affective forecasting in the context of medical conditions. DESIGN: Scoping review. SETTING: We conducted a search string using both simple search terms as well as MeSH terms and searched the electronic databases of PubMed, Embase, CINAHL and Cochrane up to April 2021. PARTICIPANTS: We initially selected 5726 articles. Empirical studies reporting on predicted and/or observed emotions or quality of life concerning deterioration, improvement in health or chronic illnesses were included. Furthermore, empirical studies of healthy individuals predicting emotional response or quality of life compared with patients reflecting on emotions or quality of life concerning deterioration or improvement in health or chronic illnesses were also included. Studies on healthy participants, psychiatric patients and non-English articles were excluded. RESULTS: 7 articles were included in this review. We found that patients generally tend to systematically exaggerate both anticipated happiness and sorrow/grief after health improvement and deterioration, respectively. CONCLUSION: Patients are less adept in predicting emotional response or quality of life regarding to health changes than we are inclined to assume. We discuss several biases which could explain this phenomenon. Our findings are relevant in the context of treatment decisions, advanced care planning and advanced care directives.

Apathy predicts rate of cognitive decline over 24 months in premanifest Huntington's disease.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment is a core feature of Huntington's disease (HD), however, the onset and rate of cognitive decline is highly variable. Apathy is the most common neuropsychiatric symptom of HD, and is associated with cognitive impairment. The aim of this study was to investigate apathy as a predictor of subsequent cognitive decline over 2 years in premanifest and early HD, using a prospective, longitudinal design. METHODS: A total of 118 premanifest HD gene carriers, 111 early HD and 118 healthy control participants from the multi-centre TRACK-HD study were included. Apathy symptoms were assessed at baseline using the apathy severity rating from the Short Problem Behaviours Assessment. A composite of 12 outcome measures from nine cognitive tasks was used to assess cognitive function at baseline and after 24 months. RESULTS: In the premanifest group, after controlling for age, depression and motor signs, more apathy symptoms predicted faster cognitive decline over 2 years. In contrast, in the early HD group, more motor signs, but not apathy, predicted faster subsequent cognitive decline. In the control group, only older age predicted cognitive decline. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that in premanifest HD, apathy is a harbinger for cognitive decline. In contrast, after motor onset, in early diagnosed HD, motor symptom severity more strongly predicts the rate of cognitive decline.

Longitudinal assessment of the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS) and UHDRS-For Advanced Patients (UHDRS-FAP) in patients with late stage Huntington's disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Symptoms and signs in patients with Huntington's disease are usually assessed with the Unified Huntington's Disease Rating Scale (UHDRS). Ceiling and floor effects hamper the measurement of disease progression in patients with late stage Huntington's disease and therefore the UHDRS-For Advanced Patients (UHDRS-FAP) has been developed. The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine if the UHDRS-FAP and UHDRS are sensitive enough to detect change over time in late stage Huntington's disease. METHODS: Forty nursing home residents and patients receiving day-care were assessed with the UHDRS, UHDRS-FAP and Care Dependency Scale (CDS). After 6 months, the assessment scales were completed again in 29 patients. Changes between baseline and follow-up were calculated using paired t tests. Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were used to calculate longitudinal changes for middle and late stage patients separately. RESULTS: The motor and cognitive score of the UHDRS-FAP deteriorated during 6 months' follow-up, whilst the motor and cognitive score of the UHDRS did not show change. Two functional domains of the UHDRS and the CDS also declined. The behavioral score significantly improved with both rating scales in late stage patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the UHDRS-FAP motor and cognitive score, the functional domains of the UHDRS, and the CDS can detect disease progression in late stage Huntington's disease. Therefore, the use of these scores in nursing homes is recommended to optimize care by monitoring disease progression and by evaluating the effect of interventions in clinical care. Psychiatric symptoms seem to fade away as the disease progresses.

[Driving with Alzheimer's disease]. / Autorijden met de ziekte van Alzheimer.

OBJECTIVE: To summarise the available literature on driving with Alzheimer's disease (AD) and to investigate the relationship between driving and cognitive functioning. DESIGN: Literature review. METHOD: A systematic search of the electronic databases PubMed/MEDLINE was conducted to select the relevant literature on the driving competence of patients with Alzheimer's disease. RESULTS: A total of 31 studies were selected that investigated driving competence in AD using either an on-road driving assessment or a driving simulator. The driving competence of patients with AD was less accurate compared with controls. The most commonly made errors included errors in staying in lane, lane changing, slower reaction times, and more fluctuations in speed. Cognitive functioning was more predictive of driving competence than a diagnosis of AD alone. CONCLUSION: Based on the available literature it is difficult to determine when patients with AD should be restricted in their driving. In addition, there is currently no consensus on which neuropsychological tests are useful in clinical practice to predict driving competence. Specific practical guidelines that can be implemented in daily practice are still lacking.

The reliability of commonly used electrophysiology measures.

BACKGROUND: Electrophysiological measures can help understand brain function both in healthy individuals and in the context of a disease. Given the amount of information that can be extracted from these measures and their frequent use, it is essential to know more about their inherent reliability. OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: To understand the reliability of electrophysiology measures in healthy individuals. We hypothesized that measures of threshold and latency would be the most reliable and least susceptible to methodological differences between study sites. METHODS: Somatosensory evoked potentials from 112 control participants; long-latency reflexes, transcranial magnetic stimulation with resting and active motor thresholds, motor evoked potential latencies, input/output curves, and short-latency sensory afferent inhibition and facilitation from 84 controls were collected at 3 visits over 24 months at 4 Track-On HD study sites. Reliability was assessed using intra-class correlation coefficients for absolute agreement, and the effects of reliability on statistical power are demonstrated for different sample sizes and study designs. RESULTS: Measures quantifying latencies, thresholds, and evoked responses at high stimulator intensities had the highest reliability, and required the smallest sample sizes to adequately power a study. Very few between-site differences were detected. CONCLUSIONS: Reliability and susceptibility to between-site differences should be evaluated for electrophysiological measures before including them in study designs. Levels of reliability vary substantially across electrophysiological measures, though there are few between-site differences. To address this, reliability should be used in conjunction with theoretical calculations to inform sample size and ensure studies are adequately powered to detect true change in measures of interest.

Large normal-range TBP and ATXN7 CAG repeat lengths are associated with increased lifetime risk of depression.

Depression is one of the most prevalent and debilitating psychiatric disorders worldwide. Recently, we showed that both relatively short and relatively long cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) repeats in the huntingtin gene (HTT) are associated with an increased risk of lifetime depression. However, to what extent the variations in CAG repeat length in the other eight polyglutamine disease-associated genes (PDAGs) are associated with depression is still unknown. We determined the CAG repeat sizes of ATXN1, ATXN2, ATXN3, CACNA1A, ATXN7, TBP, ATN1 and AR in two well-characterized Dutch cohorts-the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety and the Netherlands Study of Depression in Older Persons-including 2165 depressed and 1058 non-depressed individuals-aged 18-93 years. The association between PDAG CAG repeat size and the risk for depression was assessed via binary logistic regression. We found that the odds ratio (OR) for lifetime depression was significantly higher for individuals with >10, compared with subjects with ≤10, CAG repeats in both ATXN7 alleles (OR=1.90, confidence interval (CI) 1.26-2.85). For TBP we found a similar association: A CAG repeat length exceeding the median in both alleles was associated with an increased risk for lifetime depression (OR=1.33, CI 1.00-1.76). In conclusion, we observed that carriers of either ATXN7 or TBP alleles with relatively large CAG repeat sizes in both alleles had a substantially increased risk of lifetime depression. Our findings provide critical evidence for the notion that repeat polymorphisms can act as complex genetic modifiers of depression.

Progression of motor subtypes in Huntington's disease: a 6-year follow-up study.

The objective of this study is to investigate the progression of predominantly choreatic and hypokinetic-rigid signs in Huntington's disease (HD) and their relationship with cognitive and general functioning over time. The motor signs in HD can be divided into predominantly choreatic and hypokinetic-rigid subtypes. It has been reported in cross-sectional studies that predominantly choreatic HD patients perform better on functional and cognitive assessments compared to predominantly hypokinetic-rigid HD patients. The course of these motor subtypes and their clinical profiles has not been investigated longitudinally. A total of 4135 subjects who participated in the European HD Network REGISTRY study were included and classified at baseline as either predominantly choreatic (n = 891), hypokinetic-rigid (n = 916), or mixed-motor (n = 2328), based on a previously used method. The maximum follow-up period was 6 years. The mixed-motor group was not included in the analyses. Linear mixed models were constructed to investigate changes in motor subtypes over time and their relationship with cognitive and functional decline. Over the 6-year follow-up period, the predominantly choreatic group showed a significant decrease in chorea, while hypokinetic-rigid symptoms slightly increased in the hypokinetic-rigid group. On the Total Functional Capacity, Stroop test, and Verbal fluency task the rate of change over time was significantly faster in the predominantly choreatic group, while on all other clinical assessments the decline was comparable for both groups. Our results suggest that choreatic symptoms decrease over time, whereas hypokinetic-rigid symptoms slightly increase in a large cohort of HD patients. Moreover, different motor subtypes can be related to different clinical profiles.

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning in Huntington's disease and its association with depressive symptoms and suicidality.

Hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis has been reported in Huntington's disease (HD). In non-HD populations, alterations in HPA axis activity have been associated with depression and suicidality. The present study aims to compare HPA axis activity between HD mutation carriers and controls, and examine its association with depressive symptoms and suicidality. To this end, salivary cortisol concentrations at seven time points, as well as depressive symptoms and suicidality, were assessed in 49 pre-motor, 102 motor symptomatic mutation carriers and 55 controls, at baseline and follow-up combined. Differences in parameters of HPA axis activity between these three groups, and their associations with depressive symptoms and suicidality in HD mutation carriers, were analysed using multilevel regression analyses. There were no differences in parameters of HPA axis activity between mutation carriers and controls, whereas pre-motor symptomatic mutation carriers had a significantly higher area under the curve to the increase (AUCi ) compared to motor symptomatic mutation carriers. In the entire HD cohort, HPA axis activity was not associated with depressive symptoms or suicidality. After stratifying mutation carriers into pre-motor, early and advanced disease stages, ß values differed between these groups. Remarkably, a higher AUCi was significantly associated with depressive symptoms in pre-motor and early disease stage mutation carriers, with a reverse nonsignificant association in advanced disease stage mutation carriers. The lower AUCi in motor symptomatic mutation carriers and the varying associations with depressive symptoms and suicidality in pre-motor, early and advanced disease stages could possibly be explained by exhaustion of the HPA axis after prolonged stress-induced HPA axis hyperactivity and deserves further longitudinal study.

Hypothalamic alterations in Huntington's disease patients: comparison with genetic rodent models.

Unintended weight loss, sleep and circadian disturbances and autonomic dysfunction are prevalent features of Huntington's disease (HD), an autosomal dominantly inherited neurodegenerative disorder caused by an expanded CAG repeat sequence in the HTT gene. These features form a substantial contribution to disease burden in HD patients and appear to be accompanied by a number of neuroendocrine and metabolic changes, pointing towards hypothalamic pathology as a likely underlying mechanism. Neuronal inclusion bodies of mutant huntingtin, which are hallmarks of the disease, occur throughout the hypothalamus, and indicate local mutant huntingtin expression that could interfere with hypothalamic neuropeptide production. Also, several genetic rodent models of HD show features that could be related to hypothalamic pathology, such as weight loss and circadian rhythm disturbances. In these rodents, several hypothalamic neuropeptide populations are affected. In the present review, we summarise the changes in genetic rodent models of HD for individual hypothalamic nuclei, compare these observations to the hypothalamic changes that occur in HD patients, and make an inventory of the work that still needs to be done. Surprisingly, there is only limited overlap in the hypothalamic changes reported in HD patients and genetic rodent models. At present, the only similarity between the hypothalamic alterations in HD patients and genetic rodent models is a decrease in the number of orexin-expressing neurones in the lateral hypothalamus. Possible reasons for these discrepancies, as well as potential consequences for the development of novel therapeutic strategies, are discussed.

Acute-phase proteins in relation to neuropsychiatric symptoms and use of psychotropic medication in Huntington's disease.

Activation of the innate immune system has been postulated in the pathogenesis of Huntington's disease (HD). We studied serum concentrations of C-reactive protein (CRP) and low albumin as positive and negative acute-phase proteins in HD. Multivariate linear and logistic regression was used to study the association between acute-phase protein levels in relation to clinical, neuropsychiatric, cognitive, and psychotropic use characteristics in a cohort consisting of 122 HD mutation carriers and 42 controls at first biomarker measurement, and 85 HD mutation carriers and 32 controls at second biomarker measurement. Significant associations were found between acute-phase protein levels and Total Functioning Capacity (TFC) score, severity of apathy, cognitive impairment, and the use of antipsychotics. Interestingly, all significant results with neuropsychiatric symptoms disappeared after additional adjusting for antipsychotic use. High sensitivity CRP levels were highest and albumin levels were lowest in mutation carriers who continuously used antipsychotics during follow-up versus those that had never used antipsychotics (mean difference for CRP 1.4 SE mg/L; P=0.04; mean difference for albumin 3 SE g/L; P<0.001). The associations found between acute-phase proteins and TFC score, apathy, and cognitive impairment could mainly be attributed to the use of antipsychotics. This study provides evidence that HD mutation carriers who use antipsychotics are prone to develop an acute-phase response.

The uptake and outcome of prenatal and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis for Huntington's disease in the Netherlands (1998-2008).

We aimed to study reproductive behaviour of couples opting for prenatal diagnosis (PND) and pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) for Huntington's disease (HD). In the Netherlands, exclusion PND is available for persons at 50% risk, whereas exclusion PGD is not allowed. All 162 couples who underwent PND or PGD for HD between 1998 and 2008 and referrals for exclusion PGD to Belgium were included. Couples' reproductive information was collected until December 2010; 132 couples (81.5%) underwent PND in 262 pregnancies, 54 (33.3%) started PGD, and 25 used both. Sixteen percent of PND couples used exclusion PND and 6% used exclusion PGD. The outcomes were 76.5% of PND couples delivered ≥1 unaffected child(ren) after PND, and 44.4% of PGD couples delivered ≥1 PGD child(ren) (mean 2.5 cycles/couple). Couples opting for PGD secondarily (after a previous pregnancy) had more frequently terminated a pregnancy for HD (87.0%) compared with couples secondarily opting for PND (55.2%; p = 0.015). At-risk or HD expansion carrier males were underrepresented in the group of couples primarily opting for PGD (25%) and overrepresented in the secondary PGD group (64%). We conclude that couples reconsider their choices in every subsequent pregnancy based on their previous experience, personal beliefs and the gender of the at-risk partner.

Prenatal testing for Huntington's disease in the Netherlands from 1998 to 2008.

This study aims to give an overview of the number of prenatal tests for Huntington's disease (HD), test results, and pregnancy outcomes in the Netherlands between 1998 and 2008 and to compare them with available data from the period 1987 to 1997. A total of 126 couples underwent prenatal diagnosis (PND) on 216 foetuses: 185 (86%) direct tests and 31 (14%) exclusion tests. In 9% of direct tests the risk for the foetus was 25%. Four at-risk parents (4%) carried intermediate alleles. Ninety-one foetuses had CAG expansions ≥36% or 50% risk haplotypes: 75 (82%) were terminated for HD, 12 (13%) were carried to term; four pregnancies were miscarried, terminated for other reasons or lost to follow-up. Unaffected pregnancies (122 foetuses) resulted in the birth of 112 children. The estimated uptake of PND was 22% of CAG expansion carriers (≥36 repeats) at reproductive age. PND was used by two new subgroups: carriers of intermediate alleles and 50% at-risk persons opting for a direct prenatal test of the foetus. A significant number of HD expansion or 50% risk pregnancies were continued. Speculations were made on causative factors contributing to these continuations. Further research on these couples' motives is needed.

The neuroanatomy of subthreshold depressive symptoms in Huntington's disease: a combined diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) study.

BACKGROUND: Depressive symptoms are prominent psychopathological features of Huntington's disease (HD), making a negative impact on social functioning and well-being. METHOD: We compared the frequencies of a history of depression, previous suicide attempts and current subthreshold depression between 61 early-stage HD participants and 40 matched controls. The HD group was then split based on the overall HD group's median Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-depression score into a group of 30 non-depressed participants (mean 0.8, s.d. = 0.7) and a group of 31 participants with subthreshold depressive symptoms (mean 7.3, s.d. = 3.5) to explore the neuroanatomy underlying subthreshold depressive symptoms in HD using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI). RESULTS: Frequencies of history of depression, previous suicide attempts or current subthreshold depressive symptoms were higher in HD than in controls. The severity of current depressive symptoms was also higher in HD, but not associated with the severity of HD motor signs or disease burden. Compared with the non-depressed HD group DTI revealed lower fractional anisotropy (FA) values in the frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula and cerebellum of the HD group with subthreshold depressive symptoms. In contrast, VBM measures were similar in both HD groups. A history of depression, the severity of HD motor signs or disease burden did not correlate with FA values of these regions. CONCLUSIONS: Current subthreshold depressive symptoms in early HD are associated with microstructural changes - without concomitant brain volume loss - in brain regions known to be involved in major depressive disorder, but not those typically associated with HD pathology.

Neuropeptide alterations in the infundibular nucleus of Huntington's disease patients.

Data from transgenic mouse models of Huntington's disease (HD) suggest that dysfunction of the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus (INF) (in rodents, the arcuate nucleus) may contribute to unintended weight loss and insatiable appetite among HD patients. Using post-mortem paraffin-embedded tissue, we assessed the total number of INF neurones by thionin staining and four major regulatory neuropeptides in the INF of HD patients by immunocytochemistry and in situ hybridisation. In HD patients, the total number of neurones in the INF was unchanged compared to control subjects (P = 0.92), whereas it contained over 30% less neuropeptide Y-immunoreactive (IR) neurones (P = 0.016), as well as reduced peptide levels, in fibres to the paraventricular and ventromedial nucleus (P = 0.003, P = 0.005, respectively). Conversely, neuropeptide Y mRNA expression levels were increased three-fold (P = 0.047). No changes were observed in the number of neurones immunoreactive for α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, agouti-related peptide, and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (P ≥ 0.17). Our findings suggest changes in the pathology of the INF neuropeptide Y-expressing neurones in HD patients without changes in other (an)orexigenic neuropeptides and without neuronal cell loss. These findings indicate that unintended weight loss in patients suffering from this disease may be partly a result of neuropeptidergic alterations in the hypothalamic infundibular nucleus.

Evaluation of exclusion prenatal and exclusion preimplantation genetic diagnosis for Huntington's disease in the Netherlands.

Individuals at 50% risk of Huntington's disease (HD) who prefer not to know their carrier status, might opt for exclusion prenatal diagnosis (ePND) or exclusion preimplantation genetic diagnosis (ePGD). This study aims to provide a better understanding of couples' motives for choosing ePND or ePND, and surveys couples' experiences in order to make recommendations for the improvement of counselling for exclusion testing. This qualitative retrospective interview study focussed on couples who underwent ePND or ePGD for HD in the period 1996-2010. Seventeen couples were included of which 13 had experienced ePND and 6 ePGD. Mean time-interval since exclusion-testing was 3.9 years. Couples' moral reservations regarding termination of pregnancy (TOP) or discarding healthy embryos were counterbalanced by the wish to protect their future child against HD. Seven couples had terminated a total of 11 pregnancies with a 50% HD risk, none showed regret. ePGD was used by couples who wanted to avoid (another) TOP. ePND and ePGD are acceptable reproductive options for a specific group of counsellees. To guarantee sound standards of care, it is imperative that candidate couples be given in-depth non-directive counselling about all possible scenarios, and adequate professional and psychological support prior to, during and after ePND/ePGD.

Magnetization transfer imaging in premanifest and manifest huntington disease: a 2-year follow-up.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: MTI is a quantitative MR imaging technique that has recently demonstrated structural integrity differences between controls and patients with HD. Potentially, MTI can be used as a biomarker for monitoring disease progression. To establish the value of MTI as a biomarker, we aimed to examine the change in these measures during the course of HD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: From the Leiden TRACK-HD study, 25 controls, 21 premanifest gene carriers, and 21 patients with manifest HD participated at baseline and during a 2-year follow-up visit. Brain segmentation of the cortical gray matter, white matter, caudate nucleus, putamen, pallidum, thalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus was performed by using the automated tools FAST and FIRST in FSL. Individual MTR values were calculated from these regions, and MTR histograms were constructed. RESULTS: In the premanifest HD group stage "far from disease onset," a significant increase in MTR peak height of the putamen was observed with time. During the manifest HD stage, neither the mean MTR nor the MTR peak height showed a significant change during a 2-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: MTI-derived measures are not suitable for monitoring in Huntington disease during a 2-year period because there was no decrease in structural integrity detected in any of the manifest HD groups longitudinally. The finding of increased putaminal MTR peak height in the premanifest far from disease onset group could relate to a predegenerative process, compensatory mechanisms, or aberrant development but should be interpreted with caution until future studies confirm this finding.

Psychiatric disorders in Huntington's disease: a 2-year follow-up study.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the presence and course of formal psychiatric disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV) in 142 Huntington's disease (HD) mutation carriers in a two-year follow-up design. METHOD: Of the 142 mutation carriers, 106 (75%) participated in the second measurement of an ongoing cohort study on psychopathology in HD. Presence of psychiatric disorders was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. RESULTS: Of the 91 patients without a formal psychiatric disorder at baseline, 14 (15%) had a psychiatric disorder after 2 years, mostly a major depressive disorder (MDD) (64%). The baseline characteristics of lower education, having no children, a lower level of global daily functioning, a lifetime psychiatric diagnosis, and the use of psychotropic medication were predictive of incident psychiatric disorders after 2 years. Of the 15 patients with a psychiatric diagnosis at baseline, eight (53%) no longer had a psychiatric disorder at follow-up. All seven patients (47%) with a persistent psychiatric disorder were female and their most prevalent diagnosis was generalized anxiety disorder. CONCLUSION: This cohort study confirms that psychiatric disorders, in particular MDD, frequently occur in patients with HD. Professionals working with HD patients should therefore be aware of the high risk of psychopathology in HD because early diagnosis and treatment of psychiatric disorders may improve the quality of life of patients and their caregivers.