Acculturation, Acculturative Stress, Experience of Discrimination, and Cesarean Birth in Mexican American Women.

Introduction: There is evidence that Mexican Americans are more likely to have cesarean birth than non-Hispanic White Americans. The purpose of this study was to identify factors related to acculturation along with psychological and sociodemographic factors associated with birth mode in a prospective cohort of Mexican American women in Texas. Methods: This secondary analysis included 244 Mexican American pregnant women. Women with a prior cesarean birth were excluded. Variable selection was guided by Berry's Theoretical Framework of Acculturation. Correlations and logistic regression were used to examine relationships and predict risk of cesarean birth. Mediators and moderators were also considered. Results: Eighty women birthed by cesarean. Analytic and parent samples were similar in all demographics. After controlling for parity in logistic regression, greater Spanish language-related acculturative stress (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 1.06, 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.01, 1.11], p = .028) and experience of discrimination (AOR, 1.18, 95% CI [1.00, 1.38], p = .044) increased the odds of cesarean birth. The relationship between acculturative stress and birth mode was moderated by birth facility. Conclusion: Acculturative stress and discrimination may play a role in birth mode for Mexican American women birthing in Texas. Birth facility and acculturative stress may be interacting in ways that have clinical significance but are yet unexplored.

The mastery lifestyle intervention to reduce biopsychosocial risks for pregnant Latinas and African Americans and their infants: protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Pregnant Mexican Americans (hereafter called Latinas) and Black/African American women are at increased risk for psychological distress, contributing to preterm birth and low birthweight; acculturative stress combined with perceived stress elevates depressive symptoms in Latinas. Based on our prior research using a psychoneuroimmunology framework, we identified psychological and neuroendocrine risk factors as predictors of preterm birth in Latina women that are also identified as risk factors for Black/African American women. METHODS/DESIGN: In this prospective, randomized controlled trial with parallel group design we will explore psychosocial, neuroendocrine, and birth outcome effects of the Mastery Lifestyle Intervention (MLI). The MLI is a culturally relevant, manualized, psychosocial, group intervention integrating two cognitive behavioral therapies for both pregnant Latinas and Black/African American women (total n = 221). Study inclusion criteria are: women with current pregnancy at 14-20 weeks gestation, ability to read and speak English or Spanish, self-identify as Latina of Mexican heritage or Black/African American, 18-45 years old, born in the US or Mexico, and currently living in the US. Participants must receive Medicaid or other government-supported insurance, and meet screening criteria for anxiety, depressive symptoms, or stress. Participants are randomly assigned to either the intervention (MLI) or usual care group (UCG) in groups of 6-8 participants that occur over 6 consecutive weeks. Data are collected at 3 time points: enrollment (14-20 weeks gestation), following treatment (20-26 weeks), and 6 weeks after treatment (32-36 weeks gestation). Additional outcome, mediating, and moderating data are collected from the electronic health record during pregnancy and at birth. Analyses will primarily use generalized linear mixed modeling (GLMM) to evaluate the relationships between predictors and outcomes. DISCUSSION: This RCT will test the efficacy of two combined third generation cognitive behavioral therapies (the MLI), given in a group format over 6 sessions, as compared to a usual prenatal care group, for both Latina and African American pregnant women. If efficacious, it may be provided as an adjunct to routine prenatal care and improve mental health, as well as babies being born too small and too soon. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The trial was retrospectively registered at ClinicalTrials.gov . Bethesda (MD): National Library of Medicine. Identifier NCT05012072 , Reducing Pregnancy Risks: The Mastery Lifestyle Intervention (MLI); August 19, 2021. The trial is currently recruiting participants.

Integrative Review of Disparities in Mode of Birth and Related Complications among Mexican American Women.

INTRODUCTION: Cesarean rates are particularly high among Hispanic women in some regions of the United States, placing a disproportionate health burden on women and their newborns. This integrative review synthesized the literature on mode of birth (vaginal vs cesarean) and related childbirth complications (hemorrhage, surgical site infection, perineal trauma) among Mexican American women living in the United States. METHODS: Four electronic databases, PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, and SCOPUS, were searched to identify studies meeting the inclusion criteria, research studies that included Mexican American women who were pregnant or postpartum. Results were limited to English language and publications that were peer-reviewed and published before May 2020. Covidence was used in article identification, screening, and assessment. Critical appraisal of the research was performed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Studies with Diverse Designs. RESULTS: Ten articles met inclusion criteria. In some studies, Mexican American women born in the United States were more likely to have cesareans than women born in Mexico; in other studies, these findings were reversed. Mexican American women often had lower unadjusted cesarean rates compared with non-Hispanic white women, but adjusting for birth facility (some facilities perform more cesareans than others), sociodemographic, and risk factors often revealed Mexican American women have a higher adjusted risk for cesarean birth. Women with higher socioeconomic status had higher cesarean rates compared with women with lower socioeconomic status. In studies of birth outcome by level of acculturation, women who were US-oriented had higher rates of cesarean and more frequent perinatal complications. By ethnic subgroup, rates of cesarean and complications varied among Hispanic women. DISCUSSION: Birth facility was associated with perinatal outcomes for Mexican American women; those who gave birth at higher-performing facilities had better outcomes when compared with women who gave birth at lower-performing facilities. After adjusting for pregnancy complications, Mexican American women had a greater risk for cesarean birth compared with non-Hispanic white women, a finding that may have clinical practice implications. Level of acculturation affected birth outcomes, but more research using precise instruments is needed.

Pregnant Mexican American Biopsychosocial/Cultural risks for adverse infant outcomes.

AIMS: To test a model of psychosocial/cultural/biological risk factors for poor birth outcomes in Latina pregnant women. DESIGN: An observational study measuring acculturation, progesterone, cortisol, cotinine, age, marital status, income, stress, depressive symptoms and coping. We tested a structural equation model to predict risk. METHODS: We obtained a convenience sample (N = 515) of low medical risk pregnant Mexican American Hispanic women at 22-24 weeks of gestation. Bilingual research nurses collected data from blood, urine and questionnaires. Self-report measures were the Beck Depression Inventory-II, the Perceived Stress Scale, the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans-II and the Brief Cope. We measured progesterone and cortisol in plasma and cotinine levels in urine by enzyme-linked immunoassays. RESULTS: A PLS-SEM model revealed that Mexican American Hispanic pregnant women who were younger, single, lower income, more acculturated and who had greater negative coping, stress and depression were most at risk for having earlier and smaller babies.

Pilot Study of the Mastery Lifestyle Intervention.

BACKGROUND: Recognizing the effects of acculturation on quality of life and emotional health, especially during pregnancy, we developed an intervention that would target these factors in order to improve maternal well-being during the prenatal period and potentially improve infant outcomes, particularly preterm birth for Mexican-American women (Latinas). OBJECTIVE: The purpose of these pilot studies was to test the acceptability, feasibility, and preliminary efficacy of the mastery lifestyle intervention (MLI) to decrease depressive and anxiety symptoms and improve coping as implemented in prenatal clinics with culturally homogenous groups of Latinas. METHODS: The MLI was tested in three small pilot studies (n = 15), one in El Paso, Texas (an urban area), and two in Bastrop, Texas (a rural area outside Austin), for acceptability and feasibility. A pretest/posttest, quasi-experimental design was used with pregnant self-identified Mexican-American Latinas at 14-20 weeks' gestation. Measures of anxiety, depressive symptoms, and positive and negative coping were used. RESULTS: Feasibility was a success in terms of implementation of the MLI in an active prenatal clinic setting and the use of electronic tablets for data collection and entry of data into REDcap. Satisfaction was high, with the location of the MLI being at their primary OB/GYN clinic. Participants reported that six intervention sessions appear to be ideal as was the class length of 1.5 to 2 hours. On Cohen's d, there were medium to large effect size decreases in depressive and anxiety symptoms and small to medium effect size decreases in the use of negative coping strategies and small effect sizes for increases in positive coping strategies. DISCUSSION: Pilot testing of the MLI indicated that it was well accepted from the participants and feasible as a culturally tailored behavioral therapy administered in a group setting by nurse practitioners. Our initial pilot results also suggest preliminary efficacy as indicated by moderate to large Cohen's d effect sizes for depression and anxiety.

Oxidative Stress Levels Throughout Pregnancy, at Birth, and in the Neonate.

BACKGROUND: Oxidative stress is associated with poor perinatal outcomes. Little is known regarding the longitudinal levels of oxidative stress in the perinatal period or the correlation between maternal and neonatal oxidative stress levels. OBJECTIVE: Describe and compare oxidative stress, specifically superoxide, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione levels, over the perinatal period. STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal descriptive design using a convenience sample of medically high- and low-risk pregnant women (n = 140) from a maternal-fetal medicine and general obstetrics practice, respectively. Blood was obtained from women at 12-20 and 24-28 weeks' gestation and during labor, from the umbilical cord at birth, and from neonates at 24-72 hr after birth. Levels of superoxide were measured using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy; antioxidants (superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione) were measured using commercial assay kits. Relationships between oxidative stress levels at different time points were examined using nonparametric methods. Pregnancy outcome was collected. RESULTS: Demographic variables, outcome variables, and oxidative stress levels in maternal blood, cord blood, and infants differed between medically high- and low-risk women. Descriptive patterns for oxidative stress measures varied over time and between risk groups. Significant correlations between time points were noted, suggesting intraindividual consistency may exist throughout the perinatal period. However, these correlations were not consistent across each medical risk group. CONCLUSION: EPR spectroscopy is a feasible method for the perinatal population. Results provide new information on perinatal circulating superoxide levels and warrant further investigation into potential relationships between prenatal and neonatal physiologic dysregulation of oxidative stress.

Micro RNA clusters in maternal plasma are associated with preterm birth and infant outcomes.

The current study examined micro RNA (miRNAs) clusters from the maternal plasma to determine their association with preterm birth (PTB) and infant birth outcomes. A subsample of 42 participants who spontaneously delivered either preterm (≤37 weeks) or term was selected from a parent sample of 515 pregnant Mexican American women. Plasma samples and prenatal data were collected at a single mid-gestation time point (22-24 weeks' gestation) and birth outcomes were obtained from medical records after delivery. Circulating miRNAs were analyzed by qPCR. When miRNAs were grouped according to chromosomal cluster rather than expression level, individual miRNAs correlated strongly with other individual miRNAs within their respective genomic locus. miRNAs from the c19mc cluster negatively correlated with c14mc miRNAs, and this relationship was more pronounced in PTB. Clusters c14mc was negatively associated with length of gestation; while the c19mc was positively associated with length of gestation and infant head circumference. Together, these findings suggest that groups of miRNAs from common chromosomal clusters, rather than individual miRNAs, operate as co-regulated groups of signaling molecules to coordinate length of gestation and infant outcomes. From this evidence, differences in cluster-wide expression of miRNAs are involved in spontaneous PTB.

Network Structure of Perinatal Depressive Symptoms in Latinas: Relationship to Stress and Reproductive Biomarkers.

Based on emerging evidence, mood disorders can be plausibly conceptualized as networks of causally interacting symptoms, rather than as latent variables of which symptoms are passive indicators. In an innovative approach in nursing research, we used network analysis to estimate the network structure of 20 perinatal depressive (PND) symptoms. Then, two proof-of-principle analyses are presented: Incorporating stress and reproductive biomarkers into the network, and comparing the network structure of PND symptoms between non-depressed and depressed women. We analyzed data from a cross-sectional sample of 515 Latina women at the second trimester of pregnancy and estimated networks using regularized partial correlation network models. The main analysis yielded five strong symptom-to-symptom associations (e.g., cry-sadness), and five symptoms of potential clinical importance (i.e., high centrality) in the network. In exploring the relationship of PND symptoms to stress and reproductive biomarkers (proof-of-principle analysis 1), a few weak relationships were found. In a comparison of non-depressed and depressed women's networks (proof-of-principle analysis 2), depressed participants had a more connected network of symptoms overall, but the networks did not differ in types of relationships (the network structures). We hope this first report of PND symptoms as a network of interacting symptoms will encourage future network studies in the realm of PND research, including investigations of symptom-to-biomarker mechanisms and interactions related to PND. Future directions and challenges are discussed. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Acculturation Predicts Negative Affect and Shortened Telomere Length.

Chronic stress may accelerate cellular aging. Telomeres, protective "caps" at the end of chromosomes, modulate cellular aging and may be good biomarkers for the effects of chronic stress, including that associated with acculturation. The purpose of this analysis was to examine telomere length (TL) in acculturating Hispanic Mexican American women and to determine the associations among TL, acculturation, and psychological factors. As part of a larger cross-sectional study of 516 pregnant Hispanic Mexican American women, we analyzed DNA in blood samples ( N = 56) collected at 22-24 weeks gestation for TL as an exploratory measure using monochrome multiplex quantitative telomere polymerase chain reaction (PCR). We measured acculturation with the Acculturation Rating Scale for Mexican Americans, depression with the Beck Depression Inventory, discrimination with the Experiences of Discrimination Scale, and stress with the Perceived Stress Scale. TL was negatively moderately correlated with two variables of acculturation: Anglo orientation and greater acculturation-level scores. We combined these scores for a latent variable, acculturation, and we combined depression, stress, and discrimination scores in another latent variable, "negative affectivity." Acculturation and negative affectivity were bidirectionally correlated. Acculturation significantly negatively predicted TL. Using structural equation modeling, we found the model had an excellent fit with the root mean square error of approximation estimate = .0001, comparative fit index = 1.0, Tucker-Lewis index = 1.0, and standardized root mean square residual = .05. The negative effects of acculturation on the health of Hispanic women have been previously demonstrated. Findings from this analysis suggest a link between acculturation and TL, which may indicate accelerated cellular aging associated with overall poor health outcomes.

CRH as a Predictor of Preterm Birth in Minority Women.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the predictive capability of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) as a biomarker of preterm birth (PTB) in minority women. STUDY DESIGN: Venous blood samples were obtained at 22-24 weeks' gestation in a prospective, descriptive study of 707 minority women experiencing low-risk pregnancies. CRH was analyzed using a radioimmunoassay and methanol extraction protocol. RESULT: CRH predicted PTB in both African American and Hispanic women. The odds ratio was 1.8 times greater for having a PTB if the CRH level was >24 pg/ml. The median CRH for African American women having a PTB was 46.6 pg/ml and for Hispanic women was 35.03 pg/ml. Using a receiver-operating characteristic curve, the threshold for CRH among the African American women was 30.6 pg/ml and among the Hispanic women was 27.4 pg/ml. CONCLUSION: CRH may be an important biomarker for predicting PTB in minority women, especially when combined with other predictors.

Psychological, cultural and neuroendocrine profiles of risk for preterm birth.

BACKGROUND: Preterm birth remains a major obstetrical problem and identification of risk factors for preterm birth continues to be a priority in providing adequate care. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to elucidate risk profiles for preterm birth using psychological, cultural and neuroendocrine measures. METHODS: From a cross sectional study of 515 Mexican American pregnant women at 22-24 weeks gestation, a latent profile analysis of risk for preterm birth using structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted. We determined accurate gestational age at delivery from the prenatal record and early ultrasounds. We also obtained demographic and prenatal data off of the chart, particularly for infections, obstetrical history, and medications. We measured depression (Beck Depression Inventory), mastery (Mastery scale), coping (The Brief Cope), and acculturation (Multidimensional Acculturation Scale) with reliable and valid instruments. We obtained maternal whole blood and separated it into plasma for radioimmunoassay of Corticotrophin Releasing Hormone (CRH). Delivery data was obtained from hospital medical records. RESULTS: Using a latent profile analysis, three psychological risk profiles were identified. The "low risk" profile had a 7.7% preterm birth rate. The "moderate risk" profile had a 12% preterm birth rate. The "highest risk" profile had a 15.85% preterm birth rate. The highest risk profile had double the percentage of total infections compared to the low risk profile. High CRH levels were present in the moderate and highest risk profiles. CONCLUSION: These risk profiles may provide a basis for screening for Mexican American women to predict risk of preterm birth, particularly after they are further validated in a prospective cohort study. Future research might include use of such an identified risk profile with targeted interventions tailored to the Hispanic culture.

Perceptions of guided imagery for stress management in pregnant African American women.

Maternal stress during pregnancy has been associated with numerous adverse pregnancy, birth, and health outcomes. Pregnant African American women have been reported to have higher levels of stress compared to other ethnic or racial groups underscoring the need for effective interventions to reduce stress in this population. The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth understanding of the perceptions of guided imagery (GI) as a technique for stress management in a cohort of pregnant African American women who participated in a GI intervention as part of a larger mixed methods randomized controlled trial. The 12week intervention was a professionally recorded compact disc with four tracks developed and sequenced to reduce stress and associated symptoms. The findings from this descriptive phenomenologic study were derived from daily logs and interviews from 36 participants randomized to the GI group. Participants described the stressful nature of their lives. Results demonstrated pregnant African American women perceived the intervention as beneficial in reducing stress and the associated symptoms. The emergent themes suggested the intervention offered a respite from their stressful lives, reduced the negative emotional responses to stress and enhanced well-being, benefited other areas of their daily life, and provided an opportunity to connect with their baby. The study results support the perceived efficacy of GI as a stress coping intervention. GI is an economic as well as easy to implement, access and use technique that has potential stress coping benefits as perceived by pregnant African American women.

An ELISA method to compute endpoint titers to Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus: application to population-based studies.

Indirect fluorescence analysis (IFA), the gold standard for determining herpesvirus antibody titers, is labor-intensive and poorly suited for large population-based studies. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used widely for measuring antiviral antibodies but also suffers drawbacks such as reduced specificity and the qualitative nature of the results due to limited interpretation of the optical density (OD) units. This paper describes a method to titer herpesvirus antibodies using microplates coated with virally-infected cells in which a standard curve, derived from IFA-scored samples, allowed OD units to be converted into titers. A LOOKUP function was created in order to report the data as traditional IFA-based (i.e., 2-fold) titers. The modified ELISA correlated significantly with IFA and was subsequently used to compute endpoint antibody titers to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-virus capsid antigen (VCA) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) in blood samples taken from 398 pregnant Hispanic women. Four women were EBV negative (1%), while 58 women were CMV negative (14.6%). EBV VCA antibody titers were significantly higher than CMV antibody titers (p<0.001). This method allows titering of herpesvirus antibodies by ELISA suitable for large population-based studies. In addition, the LOOKUP table enables conversion from OD-derived titers into 2-fold titers for comparison of results with other studies.

Guided imagery for stress and symptom management in pregnant african american women.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of a guided imagery (GI) intervention for stress reduction in pregnant African American women beginning early in the second trimester. This prospective longitudinal study of 72 women used a randomized controlled experimental design with two groups conducted over 12 weeks. The intervention was a CD with 4 professionally recorded tracts designed and sequenced to influence study variables. Participants in both GI and usual care (UC) completed measures and donated 5 cc of blood at baseline, 8 weeks and 12 weeks. Participants also completed a daily stress scale. A mixed-effects linear model tested for differences between groups for self-reported measures of stress, anxiety, and fatigue as well as corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH), a biologic marker of stress. Significant differences in perceived stress daily scores and at week 8 but not week 12 were found in the GI group compared to UC group. The GI group reported significantly less fatigue and anxiety than the UC group at week 8 but not week 12. There were no significant differences in CRH levels between groups. Results suggest that GI intervention may be effective in reducing perceived stress, anxiety, and fatigue measures among pregnant African American women.

Family cohesion, acculturation, maternal cortisol, and preterm birth in Mexican-American women.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the potential moderating effects of family cohesion and acculturation on the physiological stress response (cortisol) as a predictor of preterm birth (PTB) in pregnant Mexican-American women. METHODS: The sample included 470 participants; 33 had preterm births. All participants were self-identified as Mexican-American. In this cross-sectional study, family cohesion was measured by a self-report questionnaire. Acculturation was measured by self-report questionnaire as well as by years in the United States and country of birth. Stress was measured by serum cortisol. All measures were obtained at 22-24 weeks gestation. Additional data including history of PTB were obtained from the health record. Data analysis was primarily conducted using logistic regression. RESULTS: The relationship between stress and PTB was predicted by family cohesion (estimate/ standard error [E/SE] = -2.46, P = 0.014) and acculturation (E/SE = 2.56, P = 0.011). In addition, there was an interaction between family cohesion and history of previous PTB (E/SE = -2.12, P = 0.035). CONCLUSION: Results indicate that the impact of cortisol on PTB is predicted by acculturation and family cohesion such that higher levels of cortisol in conjunction with higher levels of acculturation and lower levels of family cohesion are associated with increased risk of PTB. In addition, low family cohesion in combination with a history of PTB was associated with higher levels of PTB. Assessment of family cohesion, including problem solving, adherence to family decisions, family shared space, and activity, should be included as part of prenatal assessment for risk of PTB. Subsequently, interventions that focus on improving the individual's response to an imbalance in family functioning are needed. In addition, prenatal assessment of level of acculturation may also identify those who are at risk for PTB.

Invited commentary: maternal stress and stillbirth: another piece of the puzzle.

Although numerous causes and risk factors for stillbirth have been described, there are many cases that remain unexplained. In addition, the relationship between various risk factors and potential etiologies remains uncertain. This has contributed to a plateau in stillbirth rates in developed countries. In this issue of the Journal, László et al. (Am J Epidemiol. 2013;177(3):219-227) present some of the first data clearly linking maternal stress and stillbirth. This is biologically plausible, since many of the bioactive mediators of stress contribute to the pathophysiology of stillbirth. Stress is an attractive potential risk factor for stillbirth, since in some cases it may be modified. However, it is important to be careful when counseling families about the relationship between stress and stillbirth so that they do not blame themselves for the event. These data should spur additional investigation into the link between stress and stillbirth, hopefully leading to fewer fetal deaths.

Interleukin-10 predicts preterm birth in acculturated Hispanics.

OBJECTIVE: Among Hispanics living in the United States, acculturation is associated with an increased risk for preterm birth. Inflammatory pathways are also associated with preterm birth. As such, the current study sought to investigate the potential relationships among preterm birth, acculturation of Hispanic women, and inflammatory markers. STUDY DESIGN: The authors performed an observational study on pregnant Hispanic women in Texas at 22-24 weeks' gestation (n = 470). The authors obtained demographic data prenatally as well as birth outcome data from the medical chart after delivery. The authors obtained venous blood and used plasma to assay interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-10 (IL-10). The authors used logistic regression to understand whether the presence or the absence of IL-10 levels was related to acculturation and the risk of preterm birth. RESULTS: The authors observed interactions between undetectable IL-10 levels and years in the United States and undetectable IL-10 levels and being born in the United States in models predicting preterm birth. Follow-up probes of these interactions suggested that when IL-10 was undetectable, preterm birth became more likely as time living in the United States increased, χ(2) = 5.15 (1, 416), p = .020, odds ratio (OR) = 3.17, and was more likely in participants born in the United States than in those born elsewhere, χ(2) = 5.35 (1, 462), p = .020, OR = 16.78. The authors observed no interactions among acculturation, preterm birth, and IL-1RA and IL-6 levels. CONCLUSION: Acculturated Hispanics who lack the protective effects of IL-10 experience a markedly higher risk of preterm birth than nonacculturated Hispanics.

Psychological distress and SSRI use predict variation in inflammatory cytokines during pregnancy.

Evidence supports the premise that maternal psychological distress adversely affects pregnancy outcomes and that inflammatory markers and placentally-produced corticotrophin-releasing hormone (pCRH) are likely mediating factors. The primary aim of the study was to explore the associations between maternal psychological distress, use of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors, pCRH, and maternal plasma inflammatory markers during pregnancy. Measures of maternal plasma pCRH, Interleukins-1, 6, & 10, C-Reactive Protein, Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor, and Tumor Necrosis Factor-α were completed in 100 pregnant women. Measures of depression, anxiety, and perceived stress were completed, as well as collection of demographic/behavioral data, e.g. use of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Significant correlations were found at 14-20 weeks gestation between IL-6 & 10, and depression, anxiety, and perceived stress. Also at 14 - 20 weeks gestation, IL10 levels were significantly lower in women with 4th quartile pCRH levels and IL1ß, IL6, and IL10 were significantly lower among women who took an SSRI during pregnancy. After controlling for maternal age, BMI, pCRH level, and SSRI use, psychological distress remained to explain variation in maternal inflammatory markers. These results might suggest that future research should focus on whether depression and anxiety are effectively being treated during pregnancy, and how such a scenario might contribute to an immune system pathway to poor pregnancy outcome.

Discrimination, acculturation and other predictors of depression among pregnant Hispanic women.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of our study was to examine the effects of socioeconomic status, acculturative stress, discrimination, and marginalization as predictors of depression in pregnant Hispanic women. DESIGN: A prospective observational design was used. SETTING: Central and Gulf coast areas of Texas in obstetrical offices. PARTICIPANTS: A convenience sample of 515 pregnant, low income, low medical risk, and self-identified Hispanic women who were between 22-24 weeks gestation was used to collect data. MEASURES: The predictor variables were socioeconomic status, discrimination, acculturative stress, and marginalization. The outcome variable was depression. RESULTS: Education, frequency of discrimination, age, and Anglo marginality were significant predictors of depressive symptoms in a linear regression model, F (6, 458) = 8.36, P<.0001. Greater frequency of discrimination was the strongest positive predictor of increased depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: It is important that health care providers further understand the impact that age and experiences of discrimination throughout the life course have on depressive symptoms during pregnancy.

Acculturation, depressive symptoms, estriol, progesterone, and preterm birth in Hispanic women.

We examined the effects of acculturation, depressive symptoms, progesterone, and estriol (E3) as predictors of preterm birth (PTB) in pregnant Hispanic women. This cross-sectional study recruited a sample of 470 Hispanic women between 22- and 24-week gestation from physician practices and community clinics. We used the CES-D to measure maternal depressive symptoms. We measured acculturation by English proficiency on the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale, residence index by years in the USA minus age, nativity, and generational status. Serum progesterone and E3 were analyzed by EIA. Ultrasound and medical records determined gestational age after delivery. In χ (2) analysis, there were a significantly greater percentage of women with higher depressive scores if they were born in the USA. In a structural equation model (SEM), acculturation (English proficiency, residence index, and generational status) predicted the estriol/progesterone ratio (E/P), and the interaction of depressive symptoms with the E/P ratio predicted PTB. Undiagnosed depressive symptoms during pregnancy may have biological consequences increasing the risk for PTB.