RESUMO
We hypothesized that the general control nonderepressible 2 (GCN2)/eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2) signaling pathway and intracellular protein synthesis (PS) are regulated to maintain milk PS in primary bovine mammary epithelial cells (MECs) under essential amino acid (EAA) starvation conditions. We cultured MECs with 0%, 2% (depletion), and 100% (control) EAA for two exposure times (8 and 24 h), followed by three refeeding (RF) times with 100% EAA (0, 8, and 24 h). Subsequently, we measured cell viability, total protein concentration, and proliferation. Western blotting was used to quantify the levels of casein and the expression of total GCN2 and eIF2, as well as phosphorylated GCN2 (GCN2P) and eIF2 (eIF2P). The ISOQuant method was used to assess MEC proteomes, and the resultant data were analyzed using the Kruskal−Wallis test, nonpaired Wilcoxon rank post-hoc test, and ANOVA−Tukey test, as well as principal component analyses and multiple regressions models. Differences in cell viability were observed between the control versus the depleted and repleted MECs, respectively, where 97.2−99.8% viability indicated low cell death rates. Proliferation (range, 1.02−1.55 arbitrary units (AU)) was affected by starvation for 12 and 24 h and repletion for 24 h, but it was not increased compared with the control. Total protein expression was unaffected by both depletion and repletion treatments (median 3158 µg/mL). eIF2P expression was significantly increased (p < 0.05) after treatment with 2% EAA for 8 and 24 h compared with 2% EAA with 8 h + 24 h RF and 2% EAA with 24 h + 8 h RF. GCN2P also showed significantly increased expression (p < 0.05) after treatment with 2% EAA for 24 h compared with the control and 2% EAA with 24 h + 8 h RF. Intracellular casein/α-tubulin expression was unaffected by 2% EAA compared with control (0.073 ± 0.01 AU versus 0.086 ± 0.02 AU, respectively). We studied 30 of the detected 1180 proteins, 16 of which were differentially expressed in starved and refed MECs. Cells faced with EAA deficiency activated the GCN2P/eIF2P pathway, and the lack of change in the levels of casein and other milk proteins suggested that the EAA deficit was mitigated by metabolic flexibility to maintain homeostasis.
RESUMO
Mammary epithelial cells (MECs) in culture are a useful model for elucidating mammary gland metabolism and changes that occur under different nutrient disponibility. MECs were exposed to different treatments: 100% EAA for 8 h and 24 h restriction (R); 2% EAA for 8 h and 24 h R; 2% EAA for 8 h and 24 h + 100% EAA for 8 h and 24 h restriction + re-feeding (R + RF). Western blotting and protein quantification was performed. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) software identified the amino acids (AAs) and signaling pathways. The chi-squared test, multiple classification analysis, and analysis of variance were used for the purification and identification of data. Intracellular casein levels were not affected. The KEGG analysis revealed that the important pathways of metabolism of AAs, which were involved in processes related to metabolism and biosynthesis of phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan (fumarate, acetyl-CoA, and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle), were affected by both R and R + RF treatments, mainly through the glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase-2 enzyme. Additionally, metabolic processes mediated by the mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase, S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, and asparagine synthase proteins positively regulated the carbohydrate pathway, pyruvate, and TCA cycles, as well as the metabolism of alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism (carbohydrate and TCA cycle). We hypothesized that MECs have the capacity to utilize alternative pathways that ensure the availability of substrates for composing milk proteins.
RESUMO
Galactogogues are substances used to induce, maintain, and increase milk production, both in human clinical conditions (like noninfectious agalactias and hypogalactias) and in massification of production in the animal dairy industry. This paper aims to report the state of the art on the possible mechanisms of action, effectiveness, and side effects of galactogogues, including potential uses in veterinary and human medicine. The knowledge gaps in veterinary clinical practice use of galactogogues, especially in the standardization of the lactogenic dose in some pure drugs and herbal preparations, are reviewed.
RESUMO
Leptin is a hormone-like protein involved in physiological processes related to the regulation of energy metabolism, reproduction, immunity, cancer, breastfeeding, among others. Leptin receptor is expressed in almost all tissues and generates six isoforms from a single mRNA. The predominant isoform in bovine mammary gland is the Ob-Rb, which triggers a signaling cascade through JAK-STAT molecules to induce proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis, according to the female reproductive stage. In small ruminants, such as sheep and goats, leptin and its receptor levels vary widely, being high at the beginning of pregnancy, tending to fall in mid-gestation, and remaining low until the end of lactation. An expression pattern of leptin receptor has not yet been established for the various reproductive stages in bovine mammary gland. Such study is considered important and necessary to understand the effect of leptin via its receptor in mammary gland, especially during lactation when the gland undergoes tissue remodeling to sustain high milk production. This review presents a hypothesis about the signaling pathway triggered by leptin receptor in the mammary gland during bovine lactation.
La leptina es una hormona proteínica que participa en procesos fisiológicos relacionados con la regulación del metabolismo energético, reproducción, inmunidad, cáncer, lactancia, entre otros. Su receptor se expresa en casi la totalidad de los tejidos, presentando seis isoformas a partir de un mismo ARNm. La isoforma predominante en la glándula mamaria bovina es la Ob-Rb, a través de la cual se puede desencadenar una cascada de señalización por medio de las moléculas JAK-STAT, para inducir proliferación, diferenciación y apoptosis celular de acuerdo al estadio reproductivo de la hembra. En pequeños rumiantes, tales como ovejas y cabras, los niveles de leptina y su receptor varían considerablemente durante la preñez y lactancia: son altos al inicio de la gestación, tienden a descender hasta la mitad de esta etapa y permanecen bajos hasta la finalización de la lactancia. En la glándula mamaria de bovinos aún no se ha establecido un patrón de expresión de los receptores durante diferentes etapas reproductivas, estudio que se considera importante y necesario para comprender el efecto de la leptina sobre su receptor en glándula mamaria, especialmente durante la lactancia, período durante el cual sufre una remodelación celular del tejido glandular para sostener una alta producción láctea. En la presente revisión se plantea una hipótesis de cómo podría ser la vía de señalización desencadenada por el receptor de leptina en la glándula mamaria durante la lactancia.
A leptina é um hormônio protéico envolvido em processos fisiológicos relacionados com a regulação do metabolismo energético, reprodução, imunidade, câncer, lactação, entre outros. Seu receptor é expresso em quase todos os tecidos e apresenta seis isoformas a partir do mesmo mRNA. A isoforma predominante na glândula mamária bovina é a Ob-Rb, através da qual é desencadeada uma cascata de sinalização através das moléculas JAK-STAT para induzir a diferenciação, proliferação e apoptose de acordo com o estágio reprodutivo da fêmea. Em pequenos ruminantes, como ovinos e caprinos, os níveis de leptina e seu receptor variam consideravelmente durante a gravidez e a lactação. São altos no início da gravidez, tendem a cair na metade dessa fase e permanecem baixos até o final da lactação. Ainda não foi estabelecido um padrão de expressão do receptor de leptina na glândula mamária de bovinos durante diferentes estágios reprodutivos. O estudo deste tema é importante e necessário para entender o efeito da leptina sobre o seu receptor na glândula mamária, especialmente durante a lactação, periodo no qual a glândula mamária sofre remodelação do tecido glandular com a finalidade de sustentar a alta produção de leite. A presente revisão apresenta uma hipótese sobre a via de sinalização que é desencadeada pelo receptor da leptina na glândula mamária durante a lactação.
