DNA Methylation in Prokaryotes.

The genomes of bacteria, archaea, and phage contain small amounts of C5-methylcytosine, N4-methylcytosine, and N6-methyladenine. Base methylation takes place after DNA replication and is catalyzed by DNA methyltransferases that recognize specific target sequences. Prokaryotic DNA methyltransferases can be classified into two main types: (1) belonging to restriction-modification systems and (2) solitary (or "orphan") enzymes that lack a restriction enzyme partner. All known roles of DNA methylation involve control of interactions between DNA-binding proteins and their cognate sites. Such roles include protection from DNA restriction, strand discrimination during mismatch repair, cell cycle control, and regulation of transcription. DNA methylation often affects the interaction of bacterial pathogens with their hosts, raising the possibility of epigenetic therapies for infectious diseases.

Waddington's Landscapes in the Bacterial World.

Conrad Waddington's epigenetic landscape, a visual metaphor for the development of multicellular organisms, is appropriate to depict the formation of phenotypic variants of bacterial cells. Examples of bacterial differentiation that result in morphological change have been known for decades. In addition, bacterial populations contain phenotypic cell variants that lack morphological change, and the advent of fluorescent protein technology and single-cell analysis has unveiled scores of examples. Cell-specific gene expression patterns can have a random origin or arise as a programmed event. When phenotypic cell-to-cell differences are heritable, bacterial lineages are formed. The mechanisms that transmit epigenetic states to daughter cells can have strikingly different levels of complexity, from the propagation of simple feedback loops to the formation of complex DNA methylation patterns. Game theory predicts that phenotypic heterogeneity can facilitate bacterial adaptation to hostile or unpredictable environments, serving either as a division of labor or as a bet hedging that anticipates future challenges. Experimental observation confirms the existence of both types of strategies in the bacterial world.

Evidence for Involvement of the Salmonella enterica Z-Ring Assembly Factors ZapA and ZapB in Resistance to Bile.

Genes annotated as ygfE and yiiU in the genome of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium encode proteins homologous to Escherichia coli cell division factors ZapA and ZapB, respectively. ZapA- and ZapB- mutants of S. enterica are bile-sensitive. The amount of zapB mRNA increases in the presence of a sublethal concentration of sodium deoxycholate (DOC) while zapA mRNA remains unaffected. Increased zapB mRNA level in the presence of DOC is not caused by upregulation of zapB transcription but by increased stability of zapB mRNA. This increase is suppressed by an hfq mutation, suggesting the involvement of a small regulatory RNA. We provide evidence that such sRNA is MicA. The ZapB protein is degraded in the presence of DOC, and degradation appears to involve the Lon protease. We propose that increased stability of zapB mRNA in the presence of DOC may counter degradation of bile-damaged ZapB, thereby providing sufficient level of functional ZapB protein to permit Z-ring assembly in the presence of bile.

Copy Number Heterogeneity in the Virulence Plasmid of Salmonella enterica.

Quantitative PCR analysis shows that the virulence plasmid of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (pSLT) is a low-copy-number plasmid, with 1-2 copies per chromosome. However, fluorescence microscopy observation of pSLT labeled with a lacO fluorescent tag reveals cell-to-cell differences in the number of foci, which ranges from 1 to 8. As each focus must correspond to ≥1 plasmid copy, the number of foci can be expected to indicate the minimal number of pSLT copies per cell. A correlation is found between the number of foci and the bacterial cell volume. In contrast, heterogeneity in the number of loci appears to be independent of the cell volume and may have stochastic origin. As a consequence of copy number heterogeneity, expression of a pSLT-bone reporter gene shows high levels of cell-to-cell variation, especially in actively dividing cultures. These observations support the notion that low-copy-number plasmids can be a source of gene expression noise in bacterial populations.

Contribution of DNA adenine methylation to gene expression heterogeneity in Salmonella enterica.

Expression of Salmonella enterica loci harboring undermethylated GATC sites at promoters or regulatory regions was monitored by single cell analysis. Cell-to-cell differences in expression were detected in ten such loci (carA, dgoR, holA, nanA, ssaN, STM1290, STM3276, STM5308, gtr and opvAB), with concomitant formation of ON and OFF subpopulations. The ON and OFF subpopulation sizes varied depending on the growth conditions, suggesting that the population structure can be modulated by environmental control. All the loci under study except STM5308 displayed altered patterns of expression in strains lacking or overproducing Dam methylase, thereby confirming control by Dam methylation. Bioinformatic analysis identified potential binding sites for transcription factors OxyR, CRP and Fur, and analysis of expression in mutant backgrounds confirmed transcriptional control by one or more of such factors. Surveys of gene expression in pairwise combinations of Dam methylation-dependent loci revealed independent switching, thus predicting the formation of a high number of cell variants. This study expands the list of S. enterica loci under transcriptional control by Dam methylation, and underscores the relevance of the DNA adenine methylome as a source of phenotypic heterogeneity.

Corrigendum: Copy Number Heterogeneity in the Virulence Plasmid of Salmonella enterica.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.599931.].

The bacterial epigenome.

In all domains of life, genomes contain epigenetic information superimposed over the nucleotide sequence. Epigenetic signals control DNA-protein interactions and can cause phenotypic change in the absence of mutation. A nearly universal mechanism of epigenetic signalling is DNA methylation. In bacteria, DNA methylation has roles in genome defence, chromosome replication and segregation, nucleoid organization, cell cycle control, DNA repair and regulation of transcription. In many bacterial species, DNA methylation controls reversible switching (phase variation) of gene expression, a phenomenon that generates phenotypic cell variants. The formation of epigenetic lineages enables the adaptation of bacterial populations to harsh or changing environments and modulates the interaction of pathogens with their eukaryotic hosts.

Regulation of bistability in the std fimbrial operon of Salmonella enterica by DNA adenine methylation and transcription factors HdfR, StdE and StdF.

Bistable expression of the Salmonella enterica std operon is controlled by an AND logic gate involving three transcriptional activators: the LysR-type factor HdfR and the StdE and StdF regulators encoded by the std operon itself. StdE activates transcription of the hdfR gene, and StdF activates std transcription together with HdfR. Binding of HdfR upstream of the std promoter is hindered by methylation of GATC sites located within the upstream activating sequence (UAS). Epigenetic control by Dam methylation thus antagonizes formation of the StdE-StdF-HdfR loop and tilts the std switch toward the StdOFF state. In turn, HdfR binding hinders methylation of the UAS, permitting activation of the StdE-StdF-HdfR loop and concomitant formation of StdON cells. Bistability is thus the outcome of competition between DNA adenine methylation and the StdE-StdF-HdfR activator loop.

DNA methylation in bacteria: from the methyl group to the methylome.

Formation of C(5)-methyl-cytosine, N(4)-methyl-cytosine, and N(6)-methyl-adenine in bacterial genomes is postreplicative, and occurs at specific targets. Base methylation can modulate the interaction of DNA-binding proteins with their cognate sites, and controls chromosome replication, correction of DNA mismatches, cell cycle-coupled transcription, and formation of epigenetic lineages by phase variation. During four decades, the roles of DNA methylation in bacterial physiology have been investigated by analyzing the contribution of individual methyl groups or small methyl group clusters to the control of DNA-protein interactions. Nowadays, single-molecule real-time sequencing can analyze the DNA methylation of the entire genome (the 'methylome'). Bacterial methylomes provide a wealth of information on the methylation marks present in bacterial genomes, and may open a new era in bacterial epigenomics.

Proteome-wide search for PP2A substrates in fission yeast.

PP2A (protein phosphatase 2A) is a major phosphatase in eukaryotic cells that plays an essential role in many processes. PP2A mutations in Schizosaccharomyces pombe result in defects of cell cycle control, cytokinesis and morphogenesis. Which PP2A substrates are responsible for these changes is not known. In this work, we searched for PP2A substrates in S. pombe using two approaches, 2D-DIGE analysis of PP2A complex mutants and identification of PP2A interacting proteins. In both cases, we used MS to identify proteins of interest. In the DIGE experiment, we compared proteomes of wild-type S. pombe, deletion of pta2, the phosphoactivator of the PP2A catalytic subunit, and pab1-4, a mutant of B-type PP2A regulatory subunit. A total of 1742 protein spots were reproducibly resolved by 2D-DIGE and 51 spots demonstrated significant changes between PP2A mutants and the wild-type control. MS analysis of these spots identified 27 proteins that include key regulators of glycerol synthesis, carbon metabolism, amino acid biosyntesis, vitamin production, and protein folding. Importantly, we independently identified a subset of these proteins as PP2A binding partners by affinity precipitation, suggesting they may be direct targets of PP2A. We have validated our approach by demonstrating that phosphorylation of Gpd1, a key enzyme in glycerol biogenesis, is regulated by PP2A and that ability of cells to respond to osmotic stress by synthesizing glycerol is compromised in the PP2A mutants. Our work contributes to a better understanding of PP2A function and identifies potential PP2A substrates.