Postdischarge Glucocorticoid Use and Clinical Outcomes of Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome in Children.

Importance: Minimal data are available regarding the postdischarge treatment of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children (MIS-C). Objectives: To evaluate clinical characteristics associated with duration of postdischarge glucocorticoid use and assess postdischarge clinical course, laboratory test result trajectories, and adverse events in a multicenter cohort with MIS-C. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study included patients with MIS-C hospitalized with severe illness and followed up for 3 months in an ambulatory setting. Patients younger than 21 years who were admitted between May 15, 2020, and May 31, 2021, at 13 US hospitals were included. Inclusion criteria were inpatient treatment comprising intravenous immunoglobulin, diagnosis of cardiovascular dysfunction (vasopressor requirement or left ventricular ejection fraction ≤55%), and availability of complete outpatient data for 3 months. Exposures: Glucocorticoid treatment. Main Outcomes and Measures: Main outcomes were patient characteristics associated with postdischarge glucocorticoid treatment, laboratory test result trajectories, and adverse events. Multivariable regression was used to evaluate factors associated with postdischarge weight gain (≥2 kg in 3 months) and hyperglycemia during illness. Results: Among 186 patients, the median age was 10.4 years (IQR, 6.7-14.2 years); most were male (107 [57.5%]), Black non-Hispanic (60 [32.3%]), and Hispanic or Latino (59 [31.7%]). Most children were critically ill (intensive care unit admission, 163 [87.6%]; vasopressor receipt, 134 [72.0%]) and received inpatient glucocorticoid treatment (178 [95.7%]). Most were discharged with continued glucocorticoid treatment (173 [93.0%]); median discharge dose was 42 mg/d (IQR, 30-60 mg/d) or 1.1 mg/kg/d (IQR, 0.7-1.7 mg/kg/d). Inpatient severity of illness was not associated with duration of postdischarge glucocorticoid treatment. Outpatient treatment duration varied (median, 23 days; IQR, 15-32 days). Time to normalization of C-reactive protein and ferritin levels was similar for glucocorticoid duration of less than 3 weeks vs 3 or more weeks. Readmission occurred in 7 patients (3.8%); none was for cardiovascular dysfunction. Hyperglycemia developed in 14 patients (8.1%). Seventy-five patients (43%) gained 2 kg or more after discharge (median 4.1 kg; IQR, 3.0-6.0 kg). Inpatient high-dose intravenous and oral glucocorticoid therapy was associated with postdischarge weight gain (adjusted odds ratio, 6.91; 95% CI, 1.92-24.91). Conclusions and Relevance: In this multicenter cohort of patients with MIS-C and cardiovascular dysfunction, postdischarge glucocorticoid treatment was often prolonged, but clinical outcomes were similar in patients prescribed shorter courses. Outpatient weight gain was common. Readmission was infrequent, with none for cardiovascular dysfunction. These findings suggest that strategies are needed to optimize postdischarge glucocorticoid courses for patients with MIS-C.

Precision Medicine: Towards Individualized Dosing in Pediatric Rheumatology.

Despite an increase in the number of available therapeutics, many children with rheumatic disease continue to experience active inflammatory disease and treatment failure. One reason for treatment failure is the lack of dosing paradigms to account for the wide between-patient variability in drug pharmacokinetics because of developmental changes or genetic polymorphisms that effect drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. This review highlights several strategies to optimize dosing for biologic and nonbiologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, including therapeutic drug monitoring, pharmacogenomics, and the use of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling.

Clinical presentation and outcomes of childhood-onset membranous lupus nephritis.

BACKGROUND: Best practices for managing childhood-onset membranous lupus nephritis (MLN) are not yet established. Most studies involve primarily or exclusively adult cohorts or pediatric cohorts with combinations of pure or mixed membranous and proliferative nephritis. METHODS: We performed a single-center cohort study of consecutively diagnosed children with pure MLN from 1990 and 2016. Patients received care in Houston, Texas, one of the most diverse metropolitan areas in North America. Renal outcomes were obtained using consensus definitions from the Childhood Arthritis and Rheumatology Research Alliance (CARRA). Logistic regression was used to detect predictors of complete renal response. RESULTS: A total of 56 children with MLN were identified (82% females, 44% black, 35% Hispanic) with a median follow-up time of 4.1 years. The mean age of MLN onset was 13.7 ± 3.4 years. On initial presentation 69% had nephrotic syndrome and 11% had acute kidney injury. Glucocorticoids were prescribed in 96% of patients and anti-malarials in 88%. Mycophenolate mofetil was the most common non-steroid immunosuppressive agent (69%), followed by rituximab (25%), cyclophosphamide (18%), and azathioprine (9%). Renin-angiotensin aldosterone system blocking agents were prescribed in 78% of patients. Of 37 patients with ≥2 years of follow-up, 74% achieved complete renal response at 24 months. No predictor variable of complete renal response was identified in this small cohort. Renal flares occurred in 48% of patients (86% proteinuric, 14% nephritic). On subsequent renal biopsy, 13% patients had developed proliferative nephritis. CONCLUSIONS: This single-center cohort of childhood-onset MLN showed favorable outcomes. Utilizing pediatric renal outcomes definitions, we found that response rates were high, as were rates of renal flare.

Changes in Frequency and Activation Status of Major CD4+ T-Cell Subsets after Initiation of Immunosuppressive Therapy in a Patient with New Diagnosis Childhood-Onset Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.

BACKGROUND: Several studies suggest that defects of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and impaired cellular immunity are secondary to an imbalance between auto-aggressive T-cells and Tregs in lupus patients. Discrepancies in Tregs and effector T-cells (Teff) in active lupus patients are shown to be restored in patients upon receiving immunosuppressive therapy. Therefore, our main aim was to observe frequencies of these CD4+ T-cell subsets and Tregs/Teff ratio in a new diagnosis of childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematous (cSLE) before and after initiation of therapy. In addition, we monitored T-cell exhaustion status by examining responses to super-antigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B (SEB) and PD-1 expression in this patient. METHODS: Phenotyping of CD4+ T-cell subsets was carried out under basal conditions and after SEB stimulation using flow cytometry in one inactive (I-cSLE) and one active cSLE (A-cSLE) patient, as well as a healthy control (HC). The A-cSLE patient was a new diagnosis. Variables were measured at three consecutive time points in the active patient, reflecting various stages of disease activity. Activation status of CD4+ T-cells in the A-cSLE patient was compared to that of the I-cSLE patient and HC. Disease activity was measured by calculating the systemic lupus erythematous disease activity index. RESULTS: We found that the A-cSLE patient was not Tregs deficient. The patient had increased frequency of Tregs, and the Tregs/Teff ratio increased when the disease activity became less severe. CD4+ T-cells in the I-cSLE patient and in the A-cSLE patient with milder disease activity had heightened responsiveness to SEB, whereas T-cells were relatively hypo-responsive to SEB in the A-cSLE patient when disease activity was higher. The active patient exhibited higher frequencies of PD-1+ expressing Tregs, Teff, and Tnaïve/mem cells under basal conditions compared to the HC and I-cSLE patient. CONCLUSION: In the A-cSLE patient, changes in Tregs/Teff ratio correlated better with clinical improvement compared to Tregs frequencies alone and might reflect the restoration of immune homeostasis with therapy. SEB hypo-responsiveness in the A-cSLE patient when disease activity was higher paralleled with findings of greater frequencies of PD-1+ expressing Tregs, Teff, and Tnaïve/mem cells, suggests a possible global exhaustion status of CD4+ T-cells in this patient.

Brain morphometric changes associated with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus and neurocognitive deficit.

OBJECTIVE: To use structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to characterize changes in gray matter and white matter volumes between patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and matched controls, between patients with childhood-onset SLE with and those without neurocognitive deficit, and in relation to disease duration and treatment with steroids. METHODS: Twenty-two patients with childhood-onset SLE and 19 healthy controls underwent high-resolution structural MRI. Probability density maps for gray matter and white matter were compared between groups. RESULTS: Neuropsychological testing confirmed the presence of neurocognitive deficit in 8 patients with childhood-onset SLE. Multiple brain regions had reduced gray matter volume in the patients with childhood- onset SLE with neurocognitive deficit versus controls or patients with childhood-onset SLE without neurocognitive deficit. Neither disease duration nor cumulative oral or intravenous steroid doses accounted for decreases in gray matter. White matter volume was also reduced in patients with childhood-onset SLE with neurocognitive deficit, and the reduction was positively associated with both disease duration and cumulative oral steroid dose. Conversely, higher cumulative intravenous steroid doses were associated with higher white matter volumes. CONCLUSION: Neurocognitive deficit in patients with childhood-onset SLE is associated with multifocal decreases in both gray and white matter volumes. Since only white matter volume changes are related to disease duration and cumulative oral steroid use, this may suggest that gray and white matter alterations relate to different underlying mechanisms. Further work is needed to understand the relationship between gray and white matter alterations in childhood-onset SLE, whether the underlying mechanisms relate to immunologic, vascular, or other causes, and whether the changes are reversible or preventable. Likewise, the protective properties of intravenous steroids in maintaining white matter volumes require confirmation in larger cohorts.

Functional neuronal network activity differs with cognitive dysfunction in childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus.

INTRODUCTION: Neuropsychiatric manifestations are common in childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE) and often include neurocognitive dysfunction (NCD). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) can measure brain activation during tasks that invoke domains of cognitive function impaired by cSLE. This study investigates specific changes in brain function attributable to NCD in cSLE that have potential to serve as imaging biomarkers. METHODS: Formal neuropsychological testing was done to measure cognitive ability and to identify NCD. Participants performed fMRI tasks probing three cognitive domains impacted by cSLE: visuoconstructional ability (VCA), working memory, and attention. Imaging data, collected on 3-Tesla scanners, included a high-resolution T1-weighted anatomic reference image followed by a T2*-weighted whole-brain echo planar image series for each fMRI task. Brain activation using blood oxygenation level-dependent contrast was compared between cSLE patients with NCD (NCD-group, n = 7) vs. without NCD (noNCD-group, n = 14) using voxel-wise and region of interest-based analyses. The relationship of brain activation during fMRI tasks and performance in formal neuropsychological testing was assessed. RESULTS: Greater brain activation was observed in the noNCD-group vs. NCD-group during VCA and working memory fMRI tasks. Conversely, compared to the noNCD-group, the NCD-group showed more brain activation during the attention fMRI task. In region of interest analysis, brain activity during VCA and working memory fMRI tasks was positively associated with the participants' neuropsychological test performance. In contrast, brain activation during the attention fMRI task was negatively correlated with neuropsychological test performance. While the NCD group performed worse than the noNCD group during VCA and working memory tasks, the attention task was performed equally well by both groups. CONCLUSIONS: NCD in patients with cSLE is characterized by differential activation of functional neuronal networks during fMRI tasks probing working memory, VCA, and attention. Results suggest a compensatory mechanism allows maintenance of attentional performance under NCD. This mechanism appears to break down for the VCA and working memory challenges presented in this study. The observation that neuronal network activation is related to the formal neuropsychological testing performance makes fMRI a candidate imaging biomarker for cSLE-associated NCD.

Development of population PK model with enterohepatic circulation for mycophenolic acid in patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus.

AIM: This study aimed to develop a population pharmacokinetic (PK) enterohepatic recycling model for MPA in patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE). METHODS: MPA concentration-time data were from outpatients on stable oral mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and collected under fasting conditions, with standardized meals (1 and 4 h post-dose). Sampling times were pre-dose, 20, 40 min, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 9 h, post dose. The population PK analysis simultaneously modelled MPA and 7-O-MPA-ß-glucuronide (MPAG) concentrations using nonlinear mixed effect modelling. RESULTS: PK analysis included 186 MPA and MPAG concentrations (mg l(-1)) from 19 patients. cSLE patients, age range 10-28 years, median 16.5 years were included. Mean ± SD disease duration was 3.8 ± 3.7 years. The final PK model included a gallbladder compartment for enterohepatic recycling and bile release time related to meal times, with first order absorption and single series of transit compartments. The PK estimates for MPA were CL(1) /F 25.3 l h(-1), V(3) /F 20.9 l, V(4) /F 234 l and CL(2) /F 19.8 l h(-1). CONCLUSION: The final model fitted the complex processes of absorption and enterohepatic circulation (EHC) in those treated with MMF for cSLE and could be applied in Bayesian dose optimization algorithms.

Pharmacokinetics of prednisolone at steady state in young patients with systemic lupus erythematosus on prednisone therapy: an open-label, single-dose study.

BACKGROUND: Current prednisone dosing in the treatment of young patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus (cSLE) is largely based on achieving balance between therapeutic efficacy and toxicity, with weight-based dosing a common clinical practice. Despite the widespread use of prednisone, few attempts have been made to improve its clinical dosing regimen, and response to prednisone therapy remains variable. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to characterize the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of prednisolone, the metabolite of the prodrug prednisone, in cSLE patients and explore the relationship between PK properties and cSLE disease activity. METHODS: Blood samples were taken 1 hour before the morning prednisone dose and at 20, 40, 60, and 90 minutes, and 2, 3, 4, 6, and 9 hours from 8 patients (ages 12-28 years) after an 8-hour fast. The mean weight-adjusted daily prednisone dose, stable for at least 30 days pre-study, was 0.29 mg/kg/d. PK analysis of prednisolone was performed using noncompartmental analysis with WinNonlin. cSLE disease activity was measured using the British Isles Lupus Assessment Group index and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index. RESULTS: Mean total prednisolone AUC(0-9), prednisone CL/F at steady state, and half-life were 1094 (range, 467-2404) ng/h/mL, 11 (range, 6.7-13.7) L/hr, and 2.6 (range, 1.3-3.9) hours. Mean total prednisolone AUC(0-9) normalized to prednisone dose by weight was 4361 (range, 1136-9580) ng/h/mL/mg/kg. Mean total prednisolone C(max) normalized to prednisone dose by weight was 1097 (range, 301-2211) ng/mL/mg/kg at 1.84 (range, 0.48-4) hours (T(max)). Patients on prednisone had interindividual variability in prednisolone AUC(0-9) (61% CV) and dose-adjusted AUC(0-9) (58% CV). CONCLUSIONS: Interindividual variability in systemic exposure to prednisolone in cSLE patients was observed.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may reduce enterohepatic recirculation of mycophenolic acid in patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus.

BACKGROUND: The large interindividual differences observed in mycophenolic acid (MPA) pharmacokinetics (MPA-PK) are in part attributed to the large variability in enterohepatic recirculation (EHC) of the drug. The main metabolite of MPA, MPA glucuronide is actively secreted into the bile via the multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2) transporter. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been shown to inhibit the MRP2 transporter, which can alter EHC and drug exposure. Here, we evaluated the effects of this potential drug-transporter interaction on MPA-PK in a cohort of patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus on mycophenolate mofetil therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Full MPA concentration-time profiles and demographics including comedications were available for 19 patients with childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus. Concentrations at predose (C(trough)), 9 hour (C9), and nadir (C(nadir); defined as the lowest concentration between C(max) and C9), and area under the curve (AUC0₋12 and AUC6₋12) were assessed using standard methods (WinNonlin5.1). AUC6-12/AUC0₋12 and C9/C(nadir) ratios were used to evaluate the effects of NSAID treatment on MPA-PK. RESULTS: Eleven out of 19 patients were on NSAID treatment and did not show visual evidence of EHC in their PK profile. In contrast, patients not on NSAID therapy showed evidence of EHC-related MPA concentration increase in the later part of their PK profiles, typically after 6 hours. This phenomenon could be well characterized by the C9/C(nadir) ratio, which was significantly lower in the NSAID-treated cohort (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary data suggest that the concomitant intake of NSAIDs may lower EHC of MPA possibly through the inhibition of MRP2 transport of MPA-G. Further mechanism-based studies are needed to further elucidate this potential transporter interaction.

Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of mycophenolic acid and their relation to response to therapy of childhood-onset systemic lupus erythematosus.

OBJECTIVES: Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is the active form of mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), which is currently used off-label as immunosuppressive therapy in childhood-onset SLE (cSLE). The objectives of this study were to (1) characterize the pharmacokinetics (MPA-PK) and pharmacodynamics (MPA-PD) of MPA and (2) explore the relationship between MPA-PK and cSLE disease activity. METHODS: MPA-PK [area under the curve from 0-12 hours (AUC(0-12))] and MPA-PD [inosine-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) activity] were evaluated in cSLE patients on stable MMF dosing. Change in SLE disease activity while on MMF therapy was measured using the British Isles Lupus Assessment Group (BILAG) index. RESULTS: A total of 19 AUC(0-12) and 10 IMPDH activity profiles were included in the analysis. Large interpatient variability in MPA exposure (AUC(0-12)) was observed (mean ± SE: 32 ± 4.2 mg h/L; coefficient of variation: 57%). Maximum MPA serum concentrations coincided with maximum IMPDH inhibition. AUC(0-12) and weight-adjusted MMF dosing were only moderately correlated (r = 0.56, P = 0.01). An AUC(0-12) of ≥30 mg h/L was associated with decreased BILAG scores while on MMF therapy (P = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Weight-adjusted MMF dosing alone does not reliably allow for the prediction of exposure to biologically active MPA in cSLE. Individualized dosing considering MPA-PK appears warranted as this allows for better estimation of immunologic suppression (IMPDH activity). Additional controlled studies are necessary to confirm that an MPA AUC(0-12) of at least 30 mg h/L is required for cSLE improvement.