SUMO and SUMOylation Pathway at the Forefront of Host Immune Response.

Pathogens pose a continuous challenge for the survival of the host species. In response to the pathogens, the host immune system mounts orchestrated defense responses initiating various mechanisms both at the cellular and molecular levels, including multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) leading to the initiation of signaling pathways. The network of such pathways results in the recruitment of various innate immune components and cells at the site of infection and activation of the adaptive immune cells, which work in synergy to combat the pathogens. Ubiquitination is one of the most commonly used PTMs. Host cells utilize ubiquitination for both temporal and spatial regulation of immune response pathways. Over the last decade, ubiquitin family proteins, particularly small ubiquitin-related modifiers (SUMO), have been widely implicated in host immune response. SUMOs are ubiquitin-like (Ubl) proteins transiently conjugated to a wide variety of proteins through SUMOylation. SUMOs primarily exert their effect on target proteins by covalently modifying them. However, SUMO also engages in a non-covalent interaction with the SUMO-interacting motif (SIM) in target proteins. Unlike ubiquitination, SUMOylation alters localization, interactions, functions, or stability of target proteins. This review provides an overview of the interplay of SUMOylation and immune signaling and development pathways in general. Additionally, we discuss in detail the regulation exerted by covalent SUMO modifications of target proteins, and SIM mediated non-covalent interactions with several effector proteins. In addition, we provide a comprehensive review of the literature on the importance of the SUMO pathway in the development and maintenance of a robust immune system network of the host. We also summarize how pathogens modulate the host SUMO cycle to sustain infectability. Studies dealing mainly with SUMO pathway proteins in the immune system are still in infancy. We anticipate that the field will see a thorough and more directed analysis of the SUMO pathway in regulating different cells and pathways of the immune system. Our current understanding of the importance of the SUMO pathway in the immune system necessitates an urgent need to synthesize specific inhibitors, bioactive regulatory molecules, as novel therapeutic targets.

A new species of mealybug (Hemiptera: Coccomorpha: Pseudococcidae) from Tectona grandis L.f. (Lamiaceae) in southern India.

A new species of mealybug, Formicococcus tectonae Joshi, Bindu Gullan sp. n., is described and illustrated based on adult females collected from teak, Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae), in plantations in Thrissur district, Kerala, southern India. The mealybug lives in tunnels made by the teak trunk borer, Cossus cadambae (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). Ants of a Tapinoma species were found in the tunnels, tending the mealybugs. The new mealybug is most similar morphologically to F. polysperes Williams and F. robustus (Ezzat McConnell) comb. rev. A key to adult females of all the Formicococcus species recorded from India is provided.

A simple method for evaluating stereotactic accuracy of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography Imaging in Frame Based Radiosurgery.

PURPOSE: To design a simple and reproducible method with minimum uncertainty for evaluating the stereotactic accuracy of Computed Tomography imaging and Magnetic Reso-nance Imaging and to compare the results. METHODS: 3D phantom has been designed with 1 mm diameter targets in eight sectors for stereotactic MR imaging and CT imaging. The phantom was connected to Leksell stereotactic frame and the images obtained are exported to treatment planning system. Leksell stereotactic coordinates (X, Y, Z) of the holes are determined in each slice and mean maximum errors were calculated along with 3D vector distances from center of stereotactic coordinate system (100,100,100) to five known Targets. The target volumes are calculated independently for each image data sets. RESULTS: The mean of maximum absolute error estimated for MR images from the Siemens Magnetom vision MR unit were 0.46 mm (X-Axis), 1.66 mm (Y-Axis) and 2.11 mm (Z-Axis). Mean of absolute maximum error estimated using CT images from the Philips Brilliance 16 CT scanner were 0.29mm (X-axis), 0.51mm (Y-Axis) and 0.90mm (Z-Axis). 3D vector calculations were 0.38 mm for CT and 0.72 mm for MRI. No significant variation is noticed in volume calculations from both image data sets. CONCLUSION: This study showed that accuracy and quality of stereotactic CT- imaging and MR-imaging are limited by localization devices and their designs in frame based Radiosurgery. This method is simple, direct and economical with good resolution and high reproducibility. KEYWORDS: Stereotactic accuracy, Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, frame based Radiosurgery.

Quantitative estimation of Hyblaea puera NPV production in three larval stages of the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera (Cramer).

Hyblaea puera nucleoployhedrovirus (HpNPV) is a potential biocontrol agent of the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae). To quantify the growth of the virus in the host larvae, three larval stages of the teak defoliator were subjected to quantitative bioassays using specified dilutions of HpNPV. The HpNPV production was found to be dependent on the dose, incubation period as well as stage specific responses of the host insect used. As larvae matured, production of the virus per mg body weight was not found to be in a constant proportion to the increase in the body weight. The combination which yielded the greatest virus production of 3.55 x 10(9) polyhedral occlusion bodies (POBs) was that in which larva weighing 26-37 mg was fed with 1 x 10(6) POBs, incubated for 6 h and harvested at 72 h post infection (h p.i.). The response of the fourth instar larvae was found to be more productive than the third and fifth instar larvae, which makes it an ideal candidate for mass production of the virus in vivo.

Influence of virus inoculation method and host larval age on productivity of the nucleopolyhedrovirus of the teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera (Cramer).

Hyblaea puera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HpNPV) is a potential biocontrol agent against the teak defoliator H. puera (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Hyblaeidae). As part of optimization of the mass production of this nucleopolyhedrovirus, three methods of inoculation were evaluated against the host larvae with various yield parameters as selection criteria. The inoculation methods compared were controlled dose on diet in rearing tubes using a micropipette, controlled dose on leaf discs (prepared from teak leaves) using a micropipette and spraying onto diet filled rearing tubes using an atomizer. Fifth instar H. puera larvae of the weight classes 75-100, 101-125, 126-150, 151-175 and 176-200mg were used for the bioassay. With reference to percentage of harvested larvae, virus production per larva and virus production per inoculated larva (VPIL), spraying viral suspension into rearing tubes filled with artificial diet using a hand sprayer was found to be the most efficient method of inoculation. It was observed that the method of inoculation and age of the larvae has discrete as well as interactive influence on the virus yield parameters.

Population dynamics of the Teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera Cramer) in Nilambur teak plantations using Randomly Amplified Gene Encoding Primers (RAGEP).

BACKGROUND: The Teak defoliator (Hyblaea puera) is a pest moth of teak woodlands in India and other tropical regions (e.g. Thailand) and is of major economic significance. This pest is of major concern as it is involved in complete defoliation of trees during the early part of the growing season. Defoliation does not kill teak trees, but it results in huge amount of timber loss. Teak defoliator outbreaks are a regular annual feature in most teak plantations in India and it is extremely difficult to predict the exact time and place of occurrence of these outbreaks. Evidence from the study of the population dynamics of H. puera indicated habitual, short range movements of emerging moth populations, suggesting that these populations have spread to larger areas, generation after generation, affecting the entire teak plantations. We were therefore interested in investigating the temporal and spatial relationship among various population groups in Nilambur, Kerala (India) and address the cause of outbreak at the landscape level. RESULTS: The populations were classified into 'endemic', 'epicenter' and 'epidemic' populations based on the time of occurrence and size of infestation. We devised a novel method of screening nuclear and mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms using Randomly Amplified Gene Encoding Primers (RAGEP). We have used this method extensively to evaluate the species specificity, reproducibility and to discriminate among the three different characterised populations of teak defoliator. CONCLUSIONS: This method also allowed us to comment with some certainty that the endemic teak defoliator, H. puera do not play a major role in contributing to large-scale infestations. With respect to the hypotheses put forward regarding the origin of outbreaks of the moth, this study confirms the role of migration in outbreak causation, while negating the belief that endemic populations aggregate to cause an epidemic.