Deep learning and lung ultrasound for Covid-19 pneumonia detection and severity classification.

The Covid-19 European outbreak in February 2020 has challenged the world's health systems, eliciting an urgent need for effective and highly reliable diagnostic instruments to help medical personnel. Deep learning (DL) has been demonstrated to be useful for diagnosis using both computed tomography (CT) scans and chest X-rays (CXR), whereby the former typically yields more accurate results. However, the pivoting function of a CT scan during the pandemic presents several drawbacks, including high cost and cross-contamination problems. Radiation-free lung ultrasound (LUS) imaging, which requires high expertise and is thus being underutilised, has demonstrated a strong correlation with CT scan results and a high reliability in pneumonia detection even in the early stages. In this study, we developed a system based on modern DL methodologies in close collaboration with Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo's Emergency Department (ED) of Pavia. Using a reliable dataset comprising ultrasound clips originating from linear and convex probes in 2908 frames from 450 hospitalised patients, we conducted an investigation into detecting Covid-19 patterns and ranking them considering two severity scales. This study differs from other research projects by its novel approach involving four and seven classes. Patients admitted to the ED underwent 12 LUS examinations in different chest parts, each evaluated according to standardised severity scales. We adopted residual convolutional neural networks (CNNs), transfer learning, and data augmentation techniques. Hence, employing methodological hyperparameter tuning, we produced state-of-the-art results meeting F1 score levels, averaged over the number of classes considered, exceeding 98%, and thereby manifesting stable measurements over precision and recall.

Can Alveolar-Arterial Difference and Lung Ultrasound Help the Clinical Decision Making in Patients with COVID-19?

BACKGROUND: COVID-19 is an emerging infectious disease, that is heavily challenging health systems worldwide. Admission Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) and Lung Ultrasound (LUS) can be of great help in clinical decision making, especially during the current pandemic and the consequent overcrowding of the Emergency Department (ED). The aim of the study was to demonstrate the capability of alveolar-to-arterial oxygen difference (AaDO2) in predicting the need for subsequent oxygen support and survival in patients with COVID-19 infection, especially in the presence of baseline normal PaO2/FiO2 ratio (P/F) values. METHODS: A cohort of 223 swab-confirmed COVID-19 patients underwent clinical evaluation, blood tests, ABG and LUS in the ED. LUS score was derived from 12 ultrasound lung windows. AaDO2 was derived as AaDO2 = ((FiO2) (Atmospheric pressure - H2O pressure) - (PaCO2/R)) - PaO2. Endpoints were subsequent oxygen support need and survival. RESULTS: A close relationship between AaDO2 and P/F and between AaDO2 and LUS score was observed (R2 = 0.88 and R2 = 0.67, respectively; p < 0.001 for both). In the subgroup of patients with P/F between 300 and 400, 94.7% (n = 107) had high AaDO2 values, and 51.4% (n = 55) received oxygen support, with 2 ICU admissions and 10 deaths. According to ROC analysis, AaDO2 > 39.4 had 83.6% sensitivity and 90.5% specificity (AUC 0.936; p < 0.001) in predicting subsequent oxygen support, whereas a LUS score > 6 showed 89.7% sensitivity and 75.0% specificity (AUC 0.896; p < 0.001). Kaplan-Meier curves showed different mortality in the AaDO2 subgroups (p = 0.0025). CONCLUSIONS: LUS and AaDO2 are easy and effective tools, which allow bedside risk stratification in patients with COVID-19, especially when P/F values, signs, and symptoms are not indicative of severe lung dysfunction.

Lung ultrasound presentation of COVID-19 patients: phenotypes and correlations.

Bedside lung ultrasound (LUS) can play a role in the setting of the SarsCoV2 pneumonia pandemic. To evaluate the clinical and LUS features of COVID-19 in the ED and their potential prognostic role, a cohort of laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 patients underwent LUS upon admission in the ED. LUS score was derived from 12 fields. A prevalent LUS pattern was assigned depending on the presence of interstitial syndrome only (Interstitial Pattern), or evidence of subpleural consolidations in at least two fields (Consolidation Pattern). The endpoint was 30-day mortality. The relationship between hemogasanalysis parameters and LUS score was also evaluated. Out of 312 patients, only 36 (11.5%) did not present lung involvment, as defined by LUS score < 1. The majority of patients were admitted either in a general ward (53.8%) or in intensive care unit (9.6%), whereas 106 patients (33.9%) were discharged from the ED. In-hospital mortality was 25.3%, and 30-day survival was 67.6%. A LUS score > 13 had a 77.2% sensitivity and a 71.5% specificity (AUC 0.814; p < 0.001) in predicting mortality. LUS alterations were more frequent (64%) in the posterior lower fields. LUS score was related with P/F (R2 0.68; p < 0.0001) and P/F at FiO2 = 21% (R2 0.59; p < 0.0001). The correlation between LUS score and P/F was not influenced by the prevalent ultrasound pattern. LUS represents an effective tool in both defining diagnosis and stratifying prognosis of COVID-19 pneumonia. The correlation between LUS and hemogasanalysis parameters underscores its role in evaluating lung structure and function.

Lung ultrasound for the early diagnosis of COVID-19 pneumonia: an international multicenter study.

PURPOSE: To analyze the application of a lung ultrasound (LUS)-based diagnostic approach to patients suspected of COVID-19, combining the LUS likelihood of COVID-19 pneumonia with patient's symptoms and clinical history. METHODS: This is an international multicenter observational study in 20 US and European hospitals. Patients suspected of COVID-19 were tested with reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) swab test and had an LUS examination. We identified three clinical phenotypes based on pre-existing chronic diseases (mixed phenotype), and on the presence (severe phenotype) or absence (mild phenotype) of signs and/or symptoms of respiratory failure at presentation. We defined the LUS likelihood of COVID-19 pneumonia according to four different patterns: high (HighLUS), intermediate (IntLUS), alternative (AltLUS), and low (LowLUS) probability. The combination of patterns and phenotypes with RT-PCR results was described and analyzed. RESULTS: We studied 1462 patients, classified in mild (n = 400), severe (n = 727), and mixed (n = 335) phenotypes. HighLUS and IntLUS showed an overall sensitivity of 90.2% (95% CI 88.23-91.97%) in identifying patients with positive RT-PCR, with higher values in the mixed (94.7%) and severe phenotype (97.1%), and even higher in those patients with objective respiratory failure (99.3%). The HighLUS showed a specificity of 88.8% (CI 85.55-91.65%) that was higher in the mild phenotype (94.4%; CI 90.0-97.0%). At multivariate analysis, the HighLUS was a strong independent predictor of RT-PCR positivity (odds ratio 4.2, confidence interval 2.6-6.7, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: Combining LUS patterns of probability with clinical phenotypes at presentation can rapidly identify those patients with or without COVID-19 pneumonia at bedside. This approach could support and expedite patients' management during a pandemic surge.

Emergency Department and Out-of-Hospital Emergency System (112-AREU 118) integrated response to Coronavirus Disease 2019 in a Northern Italy centre.

Since December 2019, the world has been facing the life-threatening disease, named Coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), recognized as a pandemic by the World Health Organization. The response of the Emergency Medicine network, integrating "out-of-hospital" and "hospital" activation, is crucial whenever the health system has to face a medical emergency, being caused by natural or human-derived disasters as well as by a rapidly spreading epidemic outbreak. We here report the Pavia Emergency Medicine network response to the COVID-19 outbreak. The "out-of-hospital" response was analysed in terms of calls, rescues and missions, whereas the "hospital" response was detailed as number of admitted patients and subsequent hospitalisation or discharge. The data in the first 5 weeks of the Covid-19 outbreak (February 21-March 26, 2020) were compared with a reference time window referring to the previous 5 weeks (January 17-February 20, 2020) and with the corresponding historical average data from the previous 5 years (February 21-March 26). Since February 21, 2020, a sudden and sustained increase in the calls to the AREU 112 system was noted (+ 440%). After 5 weeks, the number of calls and missions was still higher as compared to both the reference pre-Covid-19 period (+ 48% and + 10%, respectively) and the historical control (+ 53% and + 22%, respectively). Owing to the overflow from the neighbouring hospitals, which rapidly became overwhelmed and had to temporarily close patient access, the population served by the Pavia system more than doubled (from 547.251 to 1.135.977 inhabitants, + 108%). To minimize the possibility of intra-hospital spreading of the infection, a separate "Emergency Department-Infective Disease" was created, which evaluated 1241 patients with suspected infection (38% of total ED admissions). Out of these 1241 patients, 58.0% (n = 720) were admitted in general wards (n = 629) or intensive care unit (n = 91). To allow this massive number of admissions, the hospital reshaped many general ward Units, which became Covid-19 Units (up to 270 beds) and increased the intensive care unit beds from 32 to 60. In the setting of a long-standing continuing emergency like the present Covid-19 outbreak, the integration, interaction and team work of the "out-of-hospital" and "in-hospital" systems have a pivotal role. The present study reports how the rapid and coordinated reorganization of both might help in facing such a disaster. AREU-112 and the Emergency Department should be ready to finely tune their usual cooperation to respond to a sudden and overwhelming increase in the healthcare needs brought about by a pandemia like the current one. This lesson should shape and reinforce the future.

Lung ultrasound in internal medicine: A bedside help to increase accuracy in the diagnosis of dyspnea.

BACKGROUND: Dyspnea is one of the most frequent causes of admission in Internal Medicine wards, leading to a sizeable utilization of medical resources. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: The role of bedside lung ultrasound (LUS) was evaluated in 130 consecutive patients (age: 81±9years), in whom blindly collected LUS results were compared with data obtained by clinical examination, medical history, blood analysis, and chest X-ray. Dyspnea etiology was classified as "cardiac" (n=80), "respiratory" (n=36) or "mixed" (n=14), according to the discharge diagnosis (congestive heart failure either alone [n=80] or associated with pneumonia [n=14], pneumonia [n=24], and obstructive disventilatory syndrome [n=12]). An 8-window LUS protocol was applied to evaluate B-line distribution, "interstitial syndrome" pattern, pleural effusion and images of static or dynamic air bronchogram/focal parenchymal consolidation. RESULTS: The presence of a generalized "interstitial syndrome" at the initial LUS evaluation allowed to discriminate "cardiac" from "pulmonary" Dyspnea with high sensitivity (93.75%; confidence intervals: 86.01%-97.94%) and specificity (86.11%; 70.50%-95.33%). Positive and negative predictive values were 93.76% (86.03%-97.94%) and 86.09% (70.47%-95.32%), respectively. Moreover, LUS diagnostic accuracy for the diagnosis of pneumonia was not inferior to that of chest X-ray. CONCLUSIONS: Bedside LUS evaluation contributes with high sensitivity and specificity to the differential diagnosis of Dyspnea. This holds true not only in the emergency setting, but also in the sub-acute Internal Medicine arena. A wider use of this portable technique in our wards is warranted.

Longitudinal systolic strain, cardiac function improvement, and survival following treatment of light-chain (AL) cardiac amyloidosis.

AIMS: To determine whether echocardiographic longitudinal systolic strain (LS) parameters identify short-term improvement following chemotherapy for light-chain (AL) cardiac amyloidosis (CA). Among patients with CA, standard echocardiographic measures are commonly unchanged at 1 year following successful chemotherapy, despite observed reductions in cardiac biomarkers. METHODS AND RESULTS: We retrospectively identified 61 patients with AL-CA treated with high-dose melphalan or bortezomib-based regimens. Patients were classified by hematologic response at 1 year into two groups: complete response (CR; n = 18, or 30%) or non-CR (non-CR; n = 43, or 70%), and followed for 20 months. Serum free light chains (FLC), B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP), troponin I (TnI), and echocardiography including LS, were acquired at baseline and 1 year. Seven patients died (11.5%), all in the non-CR group (P < 0.01). At 1 year, while reductions were observed in BNP (44% CR, 18% non-CR) and FLC (94% CR, 73% non-CR), both P < 0.05 from baseline, there were no differences in wall thickness, EF, or diastolic function in either group. LS improved only in the CR group with notable improvement in apical to basal strain ratio (P < 0.05). Strain improvement and BNP reduction were correlated (R = 0.6, P < 0.01). Baseline global LS < -10.2% was associated with survival and proved superior to BNP and TnI. The addition of global LS to biomarkers identified the patients at highest risk of mortality. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that LS is a sensitive measure of pre-treatment cardiac functional impairment in AL-CA, can predict survival over and above that of cardiac biomarkers, and detect early cardiac functional improvement following chemotherapy.

New and Evolving Concepts Regarding the Prognosis and Treatment of Cardiac Amyloidosis.

Systemic amyloidoses are rare and proteiform diseases, caused by extracellular accumulation of insoluble misfolded fibrillar proteins. Prognosis is dictated by cardiac involvement, which is especially frequent in light chain (AL) and in transthyretin variants (ATTR, both mutated, (ATTRm), and wild-type, (ATTRwt)). Recently, ATTRwt has emerged as a potentially relevant cause of a heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). Cardiac amyloidosis is an archetypal example of restrictive cardiomyopathy, with signs and symptoms of global heart failure and diastolic dysfunction. Independent of the aetiology, cardiac amyloidosis is associated with left ventricular concentric "hypertrophy" (i.e. increased wall thickness), preserved (or mildly depressed) ejection fraction, reduced midwall fractional shortening and global longitudinal function, as well as evident diastolic dysfunction, up to an overly restrictive pattern of the left ventricular filling. Cardiac biomarkers such as troponins and natriuretic peptides are very robust and widely accepted diagnostic as well as prognostic tools. Owing to its dismal prognosis, accurate and early diagnosis is mandatory and potentially life-saving. Although pathogenesis is still not completely understood, direct cardiomyocyte toxicity of the amyloidogenic precursor proteins and/or oligomer aggregates adds on tissue architecture disruption caused by amyloid deposition. The clarification of mechanisms of cardiac damage is offering new potential therapeutic targets, and several treatment options with a relevant impact on prognosis are now available.

Heart Failure Resulting From Age-Related Cardiac Amyloid Disease Associated With Wild-Type Transthyretin: A Prospective, Observational Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Heart failure caused by wild-type transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTRwt) is an underappreciated cause of morbidity and mortality in the aging population. The aims of this study were to examine features of disease and to characterize outcomes in a large ATTRwt cohort. METHODS AND RESULTS: Over 20 years, 121 patients with ATTRwt were enrolled in a prospective, observational study. Median age at enrollment was 75.6 years (range, 62.6-87.8 years); 97% of patients were white. The median survival, measured from biopsy diagnosis, was 46.69 months (95% confidence interval, 41.95-56.77); 78% of deaths were attributable to cardiac causes. By Kaplan-Meier analysis, 5-year survival was 35.7% (95% confidence interval, 25-46). Impaired functional capacity (mean Vo2max, 13.5 mL·kg(-1)·min(-1)) and atrial fibrillation (67%) were common clinical features. Multivariate predictors of reduced survival were elevated serum brain natriuretic peptide (482 ± 337 pg/mL) and uric acid (8.2 ± 2.6 mg/dL), decreased left ventricular ejection fraction (50% median; range, 10%-70%), and increased relative wall thickness (0.75 ± 0.19). CONCLUSIONS: In this series of patients with biopsy-proven ATTRwt, poor functional capacity and atrial arrhythmias were common clinical features. Elevated brain natriuretic peptide and uric acid, decreased left ventricular ejection fraction, and increased relative wall thickness were associated with limited survival of only 35.7% at 5 years for the group as a whole. These data establish the natural history of ATTRwt, provide statistical basis for the design of future interventional clinical trials, and highlight the need for more sensitive diagnostic tests and disease-specific treatments for this disease.

Echocardiographic and biohumoral characteristics in patients with AL and TTR amyloidosis at diagnosis.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have analyzed the clinical and echocardiographic differences between light-chain (AL) and transthyretin (TTR) amyloidosis. HYPOTHESIS: The aim of the present research was to compare, in a real-world setting, the clinical and echocardiographic profiles of these kinds of amyloidosis, at the time of diagnosis, using new-generation echocardiography. METHODS: Seventy-nine patients with AL and 48 patients with TTR amyloidosis were studied. RESULTS: According to the criterion of mean left ventricular (LV) thickness >12 mm, 45 AL (C-AL) and all TTR patients had cardiac amyloidotic involvement, whereas 34 AL patients did not. TTR patients had increased right ventricular (RV) and LV chambers with increased RV and LV wall thickness and reduced LV ejection fraction and fractional shortening. Furthermore, TTR patients showed lower N-terminal pro Brain Natriuretic Peptide concentrations and New York Heart Association functional class when compared with C-AL. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that at time of first diagnosis, TTR patients have a more advanced amyloidotic involvement of the heart, despite less severe symptoms and biohumoral signs of heart failure. We can hypothesize that we observed different diseases at different stages. In fact, AL amyloidosis is a multiorgan disease with quick progression rate, that becomes rapidly symptomatic, whereas TTR amyloidosis might have a slow progression rate and might remain poorly symptomatic for a greater amount of time.

Prognostic value of depressed midwall systolic function in cardiac light-chain amyloidosis.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac amyloidosis represents an archetypal form of restrictive heart disease, characterized by profound diastolic dysfunction. As ejection fraction is preserved until the late stage of the disease, the majority of patients do fulfill the definition of diastolic heart failure, that is, heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). In another clinical model of HFpEF, that is, pressure-overload hypertrophy, depressed midwall fractional shortening (mFS) has been shown to be a powerful prognostic factor. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS: To assess the potential prognostic role of mFS in cardiac light-chain amyloidosis with preserved ejection fraction, we enrolled 221 consecutive untreated patients, in whom a first diagnosis of cardiac light-chain amyloidosis was concluded between 2008 and 2010. HFpEF was present in 181 patients. Patients in whom cardiac involvement was excluded served as controls (n = 121). Prognosis was assessed after a median follow-up of 561 days. RESULTS: When compared with light-chain amyloidosis patients without myocardial involvement, cardiac light-chain amyloidosis was characterized by increased wall thickness (P <0.001), reduced end-diastolic left ventricular volumes (P <0.001), and diastolic dysfunction (P <0.001). In patients with preserved ejection fraction, mFS was markedly depressed [10.6% (8.7-13.5) vs. 17.8% (15.9-19.5) P <0.001]. At multivariable analysis, mFS, troponin I, and NT-pro-brain natriuretic peptide were the only significant prognostic determinants (P <0.001), whereas other indices of diastolic (E/E' ratio, transmitral and pulmonary vein flow velocities) and systolic function (tissue Doppler systolic indices, ejection fraction), or the presence/absence of congestive heart failure did not enter the model. CONCLUSION: In cardiac light-chain amyloidosis with normal ejection fraction, depressed circumferential mFS, a marker of myocardial contractile dysfunction, is a powerful predictor of survival.

Simulation-guided cardiac auscultation improves medical students' clinical skills: the Pavia pilot experience.

Clinical evaluation is the cornerstone of any cardiac diagnosis, although excessive over-specialisation often leads students to disregard the value of clinical skills, and to overemphasize the approach to instrumental cardiac diagnosis. Time restraints, low availability of "typical" cardiac patients on whom to perform effective bedside teaching, patients' respect and the underscoring of the value of clinical skills all lead to a progressive decay in teaching. Simulation-guided cardiac auscultation may improve clinical training in medical students and residents. Harvey(©) is a mannequin encompassing more than 50 cardiac diagnoses that was designed and developed at the University of Miami (Florida, USA). One of the advantages of Harvey(©) simulation resides in the possibility of listening, comparing and discussing "real" murmurs. To objectively assess its teaching performance, the capability to identify five different cardiac diagnoses (atrial septal defect, normal young subject, mitral stenosis with tricuspid regurgitation, chronic mitral regurgitation, and pericarditis) out of more than 50 diagnostic possibilities was assessed in 523 III-year medical students (i.e. at the very beginning of their clinical experience), in 92 VI-year students, and in 42 residents before and after a formal 10-h teaching session with Harvey(©). None of them had previously experienced simulation-based cardiac auscultation in addition to formal lecturing (all three groups) and bedside teaching (VI-year students and residents). In order to assess the "persistence" of the acquired knowledge over time, the test was repeated after 3 years in 85 students, who did not repeat the formal 10-h teaching session with Harvey(©) after the III year. As expected, the overall response was poor in the "beginners" who correctly identified 11.0 % of the administered cardiac murmurs. After simulation-guided training, the ability to recognise the correct cardiac diagnoses was much better (72.0 %; p < 0.001 vs. baseline). Rather unexpectedly, before the tutorial, the performance of VI-year students and of residents was not significantly different from their III-year colleagues, since the two groups correctly identified 14.2 and 16.2 % of the diagnoses, respectively. After the tutorial, the VI-year students and the residents also improved their overall performance (to 73.1 and 76.1 %, respectively; p < 0.001 for both when compared to before the tutorial). The persistence of this capability after 3 years was remarkable, since the 85 students who repeated the test without any further exposure to the 10-h teaching session with Harvey(©) correctly identified 68.4 % of the possible cardiac diagnoses (p < 0.001 vs. baseline). These data underscore the importance of clinical training in order to improve auscultation skills in our academic setting, prompting to redesign teaching curricula. Simulation-based cardiac auscultation should be considered as the "missing link" between formal lecturing and bedside teaching of heart sounds and murmurs.

Prevalence and prognostic value of conduction disturbances at the time of diagnosis of cardiac AL amyloidosis.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: To evaluate the prevalence and the prognostic implications of conduction delays in a large cohort of cardiac AL patients. METHODS: Echo Doppler and 12-lead ECG were collected in 344 consecutive patients in whom diagnosis of AL amyloidosis was concluded between 2008 and 2010. Patients were subdivided according to the presence (n = 240) or absence (n = 104) of cardiac involvement. RESULTS: When compared with patients without myocardial involvement, cardiac AL was associated with prolonged PQ, QRS, QT and QTc intervals (P < 0.05), and with higher prevalence of intraventricular blocks (27.5% vs. 16.5%, P < 0.05), that was associated with higher wall thickness, worse diastolic and regional systolic function, higher NT-proBNP values (all P < 0.05), and higher mortality (P = 0.0001; median follow-up: 402 days). CONCLUSION: Intraventricular conduction delays have a negative prognostic impact in patients with cardiac AL amyloidosis. Their presence should not be overlooked in the diagnostic workup, prompting a more accurate cardiological support.

Diagnostic and prognostic value of low QRS voltages in cardiac AL amyloidosis.

BACKGROUND: In cardiac AL amyloidosis, myocardial infiltration is typically associated with "low QRS voltages" at the 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Although considered as one of the hallmarks of the disease, its reported prevalence varies from 45% to 70%, mainly because of nonhomogeneous definitions. METHODS: To identify the "low QRS voltage" parameter having the best diagnostic value in identifying cardiac amyloidosis, and to assess its possible prognostic role, ECG and echocardiographic data were collected at diagnosis in 337 consecutive never-treated AL patients (233 with, 104 without cardiac involvement). Prognosis was assessed after a median follow-up of 14.5 months. RESULTS: "Low QRS voltage" prevalence varied from 84.12% when using Sokolow-Lyon index ≤15 mm to 27.04% with the definition of low total voltages (QRS amplitude ≤5 mm in each peripheral and ≤10 mm in each precordial lead), the widely used definition of low peripheral voltages (≤5 mm in each peripheral lead) being able to identify 66.52% cardiac AL patients. The presence of "low peripheral voltages" was associated with a more severe cardiac involvement, and was able to differentiate Mayo stage II patients' survival (i.e., AL patients with intermediate prognosis). According to receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analysis, sensitivity and specificity were 58.72% and 80.00%, for a peripheral QRS amplitude ≤24.5 mm (the sum of QRS in all the 6 peripheral leads), and 76.26% and 65.00% for a Sokolow-Lyon index ≤11 mm. CONCLUSIONS: In cardiac AL amyloidosis the prevalence of low QRS voltages is highly dependent on the method used for defining this ECG alteration.

Early development of metabolic syndrome in patients subjected to lung transplantation.

Cardiovascular disease is a common cause of morbidity and mortality after solid organ transplantation, due to a combination of pre-existing cardiovascular risk factors and immunosuppressive drug toxicity. The prevalence of new-onset hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome was assessed after lung transplantation in a cohort of 67 patients (mean age: 48 ± 14 yr). The prevalence of hypertension increased from 19.4% to 70.1% at the three-yr follow-up visit (p < 0.01). The concomitant prevalence of diabetes and dyslipidemia raised from 13.4% to 31.3%, and from 6.0% to 40.3%, respectively (p < 0.01 for both), and body mass index increased from 22.4 ± 3.7 to 26.1 ± 3.9 kg/m(2) (p < 0.01). The prevalence of metabolic syndrome increased from 3.0% to 23.9% after the first year, to remain stable thereafter, associated with a strict control of cardiovascular risk factors. A large number of lung transplant recipients develop new-onset hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia after transplantation, and in more than one-fifth metabolic syndrome can be diagnosed after the first year. The increased cardiovascular risk of these patients should be taken into account during follow-up, to better define a proper and timely cardiovascular prevention. Adequate control of cardiovascular risk factors, preventing further metabolic syndrome development, is recommended and feasible in lung transplant recipients.