Selective activation of human dendritic cells by OM-85 through a NF-kB and MAPK dependent pathway.

OM-85 (Broncho-Vaxom®, Broncho-Munal®, Ommunal®, Paxoral®, Vaxoral®), a product made of the water soluble fractions of 21 inactivated bacterial strain patterns responsible for respiratory tract infections, is used for the prevention of recurrent upper respiratory tract infections and acute exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease patients. OM-85 is able to potentiate both innate and adaptive immune responses. However, the molecular mechanisms responsible for OM-85 activation are still largely unknown. Purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of OM-85 stimulation on human dendritic cell functions. We show that OM-85 selectively induced NF-kB and MAPK activation in human DC with no detectable action on the interferon regulatory factor (IRF) pathway. As a consequence, chemokines (i.e. CXCL8, CXCL6, CCL3, CCL20, CCL22) and B-cell activating cytokines (i.e. IL-6, BAFF and IL-10) were strongly upregulated. OM-85 also synergized with the action of classical pro-inflammatory stimuli used at suboptimal concentrations. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with COPD, a pathological condition often associated with altered PRR expression pattern, fully retained the capability to respond to OM-85. These results provide new insights on the molecular mechanisms of OM-85 activation of the immune response and strengthen the rational for its use in clinical settings.

Spontaneous regression of highly immunogenic Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV)-induced skin lesions is associated with plasmacytoid dendritic cells and IFN-DC infiltration.

Molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV) infection induces self-limiting cutaneous lesions in an immunocompetent host that can undergo spontaneous regression preceded by local inflammation. On histology, a large majority of MCV-induced lesions are characterized by islands of hyperplastic epithelium containing infected keratinocytes and surrounded by scarce inflammatory infiltrate. However, spontaneous regression has been associated with the occurrence of a dense inflammatory reaction. By histology and immunohistochemistry, we identified MCV-induced lesions showing a dense inflammatory infiltrate associated with cell death in keratinocytes (inflammatory Molluscum contagiosum (I-MC)). In I-MC, hyperplastic keratinocytes were highly immunogenic as demonstrated by the expression of major histocompatibility complex class I and II molecules. Immune cell infiltration consisted of numerous cytotoxic T cells admixed with natural killer cells and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDCs). Accordingly, a type I IFN signature associated with PDC infiltration was demonstrated in both keratinocytes and inflammatory cells. Among the latter, a cell population resembling IFN-DC (CD123(+)CD11c(+)CD16(+)CD14(+)MxA(+)) was identified in proximity to islands of apoptotic keratinocytes. In vitro-generated IFN-DCs expressed a strong cytotoxic signature, as demonstrated by high levels of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and Fas ligand (FasL). This study establishes a previously unreported model to underpin the role of innate immune cells in viral immune surveillance.

Angiostatic and chemotactic activities of the CXC chemokine CXCL4L1 (platelet factor-4 variant) are mediated by CXCR3.

We investigated possible cellular receptors for the human CXC chemokine platelet factor-4 variant/CXCL4L1, a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis. We found that CXCL4L1 has lower affinity for heparin and chondroitin sulfate-E than platelet factor-4 (CXCL4) and showed that CXCL10 and CXCL4L1 could displace each other on microvascular endothelial cells. Labeled CXCL4L1 also bound to CXCR3A- and CXCR3B-transfectants and was displaced by CXCL4L1, CXCL4, and CXCL10. The CXCL4L1 anti-angiogenic activity was blocked by anti-CXCR3 antibodies (Abs) in the Matrigel and cornea micropocket assays. CXCL4L1 application in CXCR3(-/-) or in wild-type mice treated with neutralizing anti-CXCR3 Abs, resulted in reduced inhibitory activity of CXCL4L1 on tumor growth and vascularization of Lewis lung carcinoma. Furthermore, CXCL4L1 and CXCL4 chemoattracted activated T cells, human natural killer cells, and human immature dendritic cells (DCs). Migration of DCs toward CXCL4 and CXCL4L1 was desensitized by preincubation with CXCL10 and CXCL11, inhibited by pertussis toxin, and neutralized by anti-CXCR3 Abs. Chemotaxis of T cells, natural killer cells, and DCs is likely to contribute to the antitumoral action. However, the in vivo data indicate that the angiostatic property of CXCL4L1 is equally important in retarding tumor growth. Thus, both CXCR3A and CXCR3B are implicated in the chemotactic and vascular effects of CXCL4L1.

Nonredundant role of CCRL2 in lung dendritic cell trafficking.

Chemokine CC motif receptor-like 2 (CCRL2) is a heptahelic transmembrane receptor that shows the highest degree of homology with CCR1, an inflammatory chemokine receptor. CCRL2 mRNA was rapidly (30 minutes) and transiently (2-4 hours) regulated during dendritic cell (DC) maturation. Protein expression paralleled RNA regulation. In vivo, CCRL2 was expressed by activated DC and macrophages, but not by eosinophils and T cells. CCRL2(-/-) mice showed normal recruitment of circulating DC into the lung, but a defective trafficking of antigen-loaded lung DC to mediastinal lymph nodes. This defect was associated to a reduction in lymph node cellularity and reduced priming of T helper cell 2 response. CCRL2(-/-) mice were protected in a model of ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation, with reduced leukocyte recruitment in the BAL (eosinophils and mononuclear cells) and reduced production of the T helper cell 2 cytokines, interleukin-4 and -5, and chemokines CCL11 and CCL17. The central role of CCRL2 deficiency in DC was supported by the fact that adoptive transfer of CCRL2(-/-) antigen-loaded DC in wild-type animals recapitulated the phenotype observed in knockout mice. These data show a nonredundant role of CCRL2 in lung DC trafficking and propose a role for this receptor in the control of excessive airway inflammatory responses.

Activin A induces dendritic cell migration through the polarized release of CXC chemokine ligands 12 and 14.

Activin A is a dimeric protein, member of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta family that plays a crucial role in wound repair and in fetal tolerance. Emerging evidence also proposes activin A as a key mediator in inflammation. This study reports that activin A induces the directional migration of immature myeloid dendritic cells (iDCs) through the activation of ALK4 and ActRIIA receptor chains. Conversely, activin A was not active on plasmacytoid dendritic cells (DCs) or mature myeloid DCs. iDC migration to activin A was phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase gamma-dependent, Bordetella pertussis toxin- and cycloheximide-sensitive, and was inhibited by M3, a viral-encoded chemokine-binding protein. In a real-time video microscopy-based migration assay, activin A induced polarization of iDCs, but not migration. These characteristics clearly differentiated the chemotactic activities of activin A from TGF-beta and classic chemokines. By the use of combined pharmacologic and low-density microarray analysis, it was possible to define that activin-A-induced migration depends on the selective and polarized release of 2 chemokines, namely CXC chemokine ligands 12 and 14. This study extends the proinflammatory role of activin A to DC recruitment and provides a cautionary message about the reliability of the in vitro chemotaxis assays in discriminating direct versus indirect chemotactic agonists.

Blocking TH17-polarizing cytokines by histone deacetylase inhibitors in vitro and in vivo.

Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are small molecules inducing cell-cycle arrest, differentiation, and apoptosis, currently undergoing clinical trials as anticancer drugs. In addition, emerging evidence suggests HDAC inhibitors may have anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties as well, although the molecular mechanisms remain poorly defined. Given the central role of dendritic cells (DC) in the induction and maintenance of the inflammatory and immune response, we investigated the effects of HDAC inhibitors on the maturation and activation of human monocyte-derived DC in the presence of LPS and IFN-gamma. Our results show that the production of T(H)1- and T(H)17-inducing cytokines, namely IL-12 and IL-23, was inhibited by trichostatin A (72% and 52%, respectively) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (86% and 83%). Strikingly, HDAC inhibitors were effective if added simultaneously as well as after the proinflammatory challenge, and their effect was not associated to a reduction of expression or function of LPS/IFN-gamma receptors. These findings were confirmed in two different murine models. In addition, HDAC inhibitors selectively blocked the production of T(H)1-attracting chemokines CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11. The reduction of T(H)1- and T(H)17-inducing cytokines as well as T(H)1-attracting chemokines may represent relevant mechanisms through which HDAC inhibitors at nonproapoptotic doses exert their immunomodulatory properties.

Activin A induces Langerhans cell differentiation in vitro and in human skin explants.

Langerhans cells (LC) represent a well characterized subset of dendritic cells located in the epidermis of skin and mucosae. In vivo, they originate from resident and blood-borne precursors in the presence of keratinocyte-derived TGFbeta. In vitro, LC can be generated from monocytes in the presence of GM-CSF, IL-4 and TGFbeta. However, the signals that induce LC during an inflammatory reaction are not fully investigated. Here we report that Activin A, a TGFbeta family member induced by pro-inflammatory cytokines and involved in skin morphogenesis and wound healing, induces the differentiation of human monocytes into LC in the absence of TGFbeta. Activin A-induced LC are Langerin+, Birbeck granules+, E-cadherin+, CLA+ and CCR6+ and possess typical APC functions. In human skin explants, intradermal injection of Activin A increased the number of CD1a+ and Langerin+ cells in both the epidermis and dermis by promoting the differentiation of resident precursor cells. High levels of Activin A were present in the upper epidermal layers and in the dermis of Lichen Planus biopsies in association with a marked infiltration of CD1a+ and Langerin+ cells. This study reports that Activin A induces the differentiation of circulating CD14+ cells into LC. Since Activin A is abundantly produced during inflammatory conditions which are also characterized by increased numbers of LC, we propose that this cytokine represents a new pathway, alternative to TGFbeta, responsible for LC differentiation during inflammatory/autoimmune conditions.