[Fodder flinging in cattle]. / Futterwerfen bei Rindern.

When cattle fling fodder, this is, in many respects, an undesirable behaviour: fodder is wasted, the interior of the shed is dirtied and the slatted floor is compromised in its function. Through behavioural observation, it should therefore be examined which are the determining factors for fodder throwing. Two breeds of cattle (Simmenthal and Brown Swiss) were examined to establish how often the animals fling fodder within 60 minutes in the medium-tie-stall and the short-tie-stall system and receiving varied feeding (green fodder and grass silage). Fodder throwing occurs amongst the two examined breeds, in both housing systems and amongst animals of all ages. The percentage of fodder flinging of Simmenthal cows was higher in the medium-tie-stall than in the short-tie-stall system (16.8% and 8.3%; p < 0.01). During the initial period following the start of feeding, the throwing frequency was at its highest. Fodder throwing animals had a significantly higher blinking frequency (a sign of excitement) than those not flinging fodder (p < 0.01). The reasons for food flinging and its possible effects on the fodder were not checked. Nevertheless, consideration was given to the meaning of this behaviour pattern. It would seem it is not a behaviour disorder. It could be that food flinging is the result of a learning process to control an itch caused by the husbandry system.

[Elimination of fodder tossing by cattle through anti-fodder tossing devices]. / Verhindern des Futterwerfens bei Rindern durch Anti-Futterstreuer.

In tie-up stalls and occasionally in other husbandry systems, some cattle toss their fodder with mouth, ridge of nose, or horn in the direction of their trunk. This behaviour is responsible for fodder losses, dirtying of the barn, and the gaps of the stable floors are often blocked and so loose their function. There are devices commercially available which are supposed to eliminate this fodder flinging. Two of these devices were tested, each on 20 cows. The number of throwing moments was reduced by these devices. The reduction occured not only for the time during which the devices had been fastened to the heads of the animals, but also for ten days subsequent to that. However, in spite of this, considerable doubt is being expressed. The reasons for fodder flinging have never been sufficiently cleared. It is feasible that it is a learned behaviour to combat itchiness under conditions which do not permit sufficient grooming of the skin required by the species. For reasons of animal welfare, before a--doubtlessly disturbing--behaviour is done away with, first of all the underlying reasons should be resolved.

[Integration of young goats into a herd of adult goats]. / Integration von Jungziegen in eine Herde von Altziegen.

The female offsprings of a goat farm were observed to establish what effects the introduction of these goats to the older animals has on behaviour, physical development, fertility and milk yield. The 32 young goats were divided into two groups. Shortly after group 1 had been mounted, they were introduced to the older goats. From group 2 those who had already given birth were introduced to the older goats the following spring. The following results could be ascertained: In group 1 there were significantly more twin births and the weight of the newborn kids was greater than that of group 2. The weight gain of the two groups differed only marginally. This was also the case for the milk yield. After having integrated them into the herd of older goats, the young goats developed a strategy for avoiding, to a large extent, being pursued by older goats and to achieve almost undisturbed fodder intake. Amongst the young goats there is a marked sense of group cohesion. When the shed is well structured, a useable area of 1.2 m2/animal for hornless goats seems to be enough to ensure species specific husbandry conditions.

Die konstanz der melkordnung von ziegen in großen gruppen.

UNLABELLED: ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: An zwei großen Ziegengruppen (Gehörnte und Hornlose) wurde geprüft, ob es eine Melkordnung gibt. Die Tiere wurden in einem landwirtschaftlichen Betrieb in Oberbayern in Laufställen gehalten. Zunächst wurde für jede Herde die Soziale Rangordnung ermittelt und für jedes Tier ein Dominanzindex errechnet. Gleichzeitig wurde über Wochen hinweg bei 17 Melkvorgängen (Gehörnte) bzw. 20 Melkvorgängen (Hornlose) die Melkordnung ermittelt. Die Untersuchung führte zu folgenden Ergebnissen: 1 . Der Platz in der Melkordnung schwankte individuell sehr viel weniger, als es bei zufälliger Wahl zu erwarten gewesen wäre. Viele Tiere nahmen bei jedem Melkvorgang annähernd denselben Platz in der Melkordnung ein. 2 . Eine Platzkonstanz bestand vor allem am Anfang und am Ende der Melkordnung. 3 . Es konnte kein Zusammenhang zwischen Melkordnung und Sozialer Rangordnung gefunden werden. 4 . Geißen mit höherer Milchleistung nahmen im allgemeinen frühere Plätze in der Melkordnung ein, als es zufälliger Verteilung entsprochen hätte. 5 . Zwischen gehörnten und hornlosen Tieren bestanden in allen Aspekten nur geringfügige Unterschiede. 6 . Es ist denkbar, daß die Melkordnung weniger von meßbaren Merkmalen als von Gewohnheitsbildung abhängt. SUMMARY: Equality of ranking of goats at milking The existence of rank order at milking was investigated in two large groups of horned and polled goats, respectively. First, social rank was determined and an index of dominance constructed for each animal in each herd. Simultaneously, the ranking at milking was observed 17 times for horned and 20 times for the polled goats, respectively: 1 . The ranking at milking shows less than random variation. At each milking, animals assume roughly the same position. 2 . Uniformity of ranks was particularly evident at the beginning and at the end of milking. 3 . No connection was evident between social rank and milking rank. 4 . Higher yielding goats entered the milking parlour significantly earlier. 5 . Little differences in this behaviour seemed to exist between horned and polled goats. 6 . Ranking seems to be influenced by habits more than by measurable traits.

[Behavior disorders in relation to food intake in African ostriches]. / Verhaltensstörungen der Nahrungsaufnahme bei Afrikanischen Straussen.

The behaviour of ostriches (Struthio camelus) was observed. The most striking behaviour disorders was feather pecking. However, the animals showed four other behaviour patterns, which also must be qualified as behaviour disorders: Pecking sand, pecking wire, pecking their own feathers and pecking into air, occurred in a random succession. This is a result of the nutrition, which differs from the natural feeding situation, as the animals are fed exclusively on pellets so that the food consumption is completed within a very short time. This results in an accumulation of action specific energy within the functional circle of nutrition. Therefore in the husbandry of ostriches in Central Europe not only the necessary energy and sufficient composition of nutrition should be considered. It is necessary as well, that the food be of a consistency which guarantees food intake of appropriate satisfactory duration.

[The sexual behavior of the African ostrich (Struthio camelus)]. / Das Sexualverhalten des Afrikanischen Strausses (Struthio camelus).

The African ostrich (Struthio camelus) is different from other birds not only because it is a running bird (Ratitae), but also because it urinates and the male bird has a penis. On a specialized farm in Israel the sexual behaviour of ostriches was studied. Courtship behaviour and mating have a very refined pattern. The copulation, which starts with an immission of the penis and ends with an orgasm, lasts about one minute. Most of the copulations take place during the morning morning hours. Occasionally, female ostriches demonstrate courtship behaviour to other females. Sometimes female ostriches mount other females as in the case of copulation.

[The circadian rhythm of African ostriches (Struthio camelus) in captivity]. / Der Tagesablauf von Afrikanischen Straussen (Struthio camelus) in Gehegen.

One hundred and twenty ostriches, kept as domestic animals on a farm in Israel were observed. Three behaviour categories were recorded: standing/walking, sitting/lying and eating/drinking. The animals spent more than 60% of the day standing and walking; activities with a non-life preserving function. Before we begin with the husbandry of ostriches in central Europe the behaviour needs of the animals must be determined. Only then can we assess whether the welfare of the animals is compatible with the method of animal husbandry we imagine for central Europe.

[Comfort behavior of the African ostrich (Struthio camelus)]. / Komfortverhalten beim Afrikanischen Strauss (Struthio camelus).

Comfort behaviour of ostriches exists in care of plumage and sand bathing. Both are essential for the animals. 120 animals were observed in this respect. Some remarks concern the chances of ostrich production in central Europe. Care of plumage will be possible here. Special devices must be constructed to allow sand bathing of the animals at every season.

[Biological function of morphologic peculiarities of the dromedary]. / Biologische Funktion von morphologischen Besonderheiten des Dromedars.

The dromedary is very well adapted to arid areas. It is able to survive for many days without drinking; the loss of water is negligible. Morphological characteristics hitherto interpreted as adaptations to dry areas now seem to have other reasons. In the natural habitat of the dromedary mostly thorny plants occur. Long eyelashes, eyebrows, lockable nostrils, caudal orifice of the prepuce and a relatively small vulva protect the animals against injury, especially during feeding.

Liegeverhalten und diurnale Verteilung der Liegeperioden von Dromedaren*.

UNLABELLED: ZUSAMMENFASSUNG: In Kenia und in Indien wurde je eine Dromedarherde von ca. 70 bzw. ca. 85 Tieren tagsüber und nachts beobachtet. Ermittelt wurde in 30 Min Abständen die Zahl der liegenden Tiere. Die übliche Liegeposition von Kamelen ist in Zusammenhang mit besonderen morphologischen Strukturen zu sehen. Die Dromedare lagen fast ausschließlich (Kenia) bzw. weit überwiegend (Indien) nachts. Das Liegen nahm in beiden Herden bei den Stuten fast die Hälfte des 24-Stunden-Tages ein. Es werden Vergleiche mit dem Liegeverhalten von Rindern angestellt. SUMMARY: Lying-down behaviour and its diurnal distribution in dromedaries Two herds of dromedaries, one in Kenya, consisting of about 70 animals, and one in India, consisting of about 85 animals, were observed during the day and at night. The number of animals lying down was determined at 30 min intervals. The usual lying position of camels is rotated to the specific morphological structure. The dromedaries in Kenya lie almost exclusively, and in India predominantly, at night. In both herds, the females spend almost half of the 24-h day lying down. This behaviour is compared to the lying-down behaviour of cattle.

[Comparison of reproductive behavior of farm animals]. / Vergleich des Fortpflanzungsverhaltens landwirtschaftlicher Nutztiere.

Male farm animals accept female conspecifics as partners for mating only when they have been imprinted on them. The mating behaviour of the male can be divided into three phases: a) looking for female conspecifics in heat; b) testing the readiness to be served; and c) serving. The male animal can accelerate the development of the heat characteristics by certain behaviour patterns, which cause an effect of pheromones. There is a relationship between duration of the coitus and the sexual potency in every species. Finally masturbation is discussed. Ethologically it is a typical vacuum activity.

[Remarkable domestic animal breeds in California]. / Auffallende Nutztierrassen in Kalifornien.

In the United States, especially in California, there is a surprising variety of farm animal breeds. This multitude of different forms is a result of the history of this State. Some breeds came from other countries, others were developed from feral animals and yet others were created in this state by crossing and selective breeding. Several of these breeds soon attained a high level of performance and they were exported to many other countries. Others remained primitive landraces with special adaptation or had unusual morphological characteristics. There are some breeds that influenced the history of North America considerably. This is only one reason why these breeds should be sustained as a cultural heritage.

[The selection of sexual partners of different species by mammals]. / Wahl artfremder Sexualpartner bei Säugetieren.

It appears biologically sensible that every animal seeks its mating partner within its own species. Sexual contact with alien species may occur when animals are isolated from members of their own species, particularly, however, after they have been raised in the environment of alien species. Copulations of this nature do not, as a rule, result in offspring, although an entire series of bastards among closely related species is known. Among domestic animals bastardization is partly planned systematically as this has advantages in comparison to original forms. Sodomy, i.e. interspecific sexual contact between a human being and an animal, was already described in ancient times.

[The "weaving" of horses]. / Zum "Weben" des Pferdes.

Studies were made on 27 horses which were known to weave. They were stallions, mares and geldings between the ages of 3 and 22 years. The horses were individually observed for several days in their habitual surroundings. A period, in which a horse makes pauses of not more than ten minutes, is considered a weaving phase. Shorter pauses subdivide the weaving phase into weaving series. The basic unit of weaving is the weaving displacement, i.e. the head movement between the turning points. The number of daily weaving displacements of the horses examined varied from less than 400 up to almost 18,000. The time spent weaving per day was 67 minutes on the average. Weaving is presumably caused by an exceedingly stressful situation. Weaving phases were mainly released by certain environmental irritations. It is improbable that a horse would begin weaving by copying another. Horses which weaved strongly did not distinguish themselves by a quicker release of weaving but rather by a longer reaction to individual irritations. Therapeutic attempts seem to promise success only within certain limits. The health condition is only affected insignificantly, if at all, by weaving.

[The native domestic animal breeds of Japan]. / Die einheimischen Nutztierrassen Japans.

During the last decades some domestic animal breeds have spread to all parts of the world. In general, consideration is given to these breeds only; on the other hand, autochthonous breeds of various countries are hardly known. These, however, can be valuable gene-reserves, and moreover, they represent a significant cultural value. In Japan there are several domestic animal breeds which are almost unknown in Central Europe. They are presented verbally and by means of illustration, and their breeding history is dealt with as well. The purpose of this study is to point out the importance of these breeds within the country and to make clear the extent of the danger of their extinction.

[Observations of the birth and suckling behavior of goats]. / Beobachtungen zu Geburtsablauf und Saugverhalten von Ziegen.

50 goats of several breeds and crossbreeds as well as their kids were observed. The experiment involved 388 hours of observation over 62 days. The average duration of pregnancy was 151.2 days. In addition to physical characteristics and labored mobility, a tendency toward isolation and characteristic vocalization were noted. The period from onset of birth to the first delivery averaged less than 20 min. Subsequent to delivery the doe arose immediately, followed by the kid in an average of 21 min. Initial suckling by the kids occurred on average 42 min after birth. After an initially high frequency of suckling cycles, the cycle in the following weeks was reduced to 1 to 2 times an hour in the case of a single kid birth, while twins suckled more often. Out of 5,562 observations, only 1% were true cases of suckling from another doe.

[Endangered domestic animal breeds in German-speaking countries. V. Horses]. / Bedrohte Nutztierrassen in den deutschsprachigen Ländern. Teil V: Pferde.

Due to motorization the heavy horses, in particular draught horses and carriage horses, were deprived of their "raison d'être". At present therefore, they mostly are found in small livestocks. The past few years they regained some significance through their work in the forests, as an attraction in tourism or somewhere else. In German speaking countries approximately 15 horse breeds must be considered to be threatened in their existence. Breeding history, appearance, use and geographical distribution of 12 of them are discussed in this article.

[Endangered domestic animal breeds in German-speaking countries. III. Sheep]. / Bedrohte Nutztierrassen in den deutschsprachigen Ländern Teil III: Schafe.

Sheep are mainly kept extensively. They therefore have to tolerate the local climatic conditions. By these conditions many traditional breeds still exist, those are hardy and modest enough to find an ecological niche. Because of the local occurrence the number of individuals of many breeds is rather small, so that these breeds are endangered. The hope lies on hobby-breeders, who do not exclusively follow economical reasons and present breeding aims. In the care of the countryside and landscape and in using natural grassland the importance of sheep is growing.

[Endangered domestic animal breeds in German-speaking countries. IV. Swine and goats]. / Bedrohte Nutztierrassen in den deutschsprachigen Ländern Teil IV: Schweine--Ziegen.

In contrary to the past in the German speaking countries there are now only eight pig breeds that are kept for meat. There are evident reasons for the reduction to mainly four breeds, especially if one looks to the actual habitudes of the consumer. By a decision of the administration in 1927 there exist only two native goat breeds in West Germany. In Switzerland, goat breeding has always had a great importance. Here there are not only many more goats than in West Germany, but with eight breeds the number of different types is much greater. Four pig breeds and six goat breeds are described. All have only local meaning and importance and all are endangered.