Functional improvement in chronic stroke patients when following a supervised home-based computerized cognitive training.

BACKGROUND: Computerized Cognitive Training (CCT) is an effective treatment for cognitive impairment in the post-acute stage of stroke. However, it is still not clear if it is suitable for chronic stage. OBJECTIVES: To explore if patients with cognitive deficit following stroke may benefit from CCT. METHODS: Thirty patients post-stroke between 24 and 62 years old were randomized into two groups (A and B) to receive two different types of CCT. All patients were tested with a neuropsychological battery and functional questionnaires, before and after each CCT and also 6 months after the end of the study. In phase I, Group A received a customized CCT and Group B received a non-customized CCT, over 6 weeks. Three months after, each group received the other intervention (phase II). RESULTS: After phase I, between-group analyses revealed that Group A showed a relative decrease in subjective complaints. In contrast, Group B showed improvement in performance-based measures. After phase II, the decrease in subjective complaints continued in Group A, and both groups showed improvement in performance-based measures. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with chronic stroke improved cognitive functioning after performing supervised home-based multi-domain computerized cognitive training.

[Neuropsychological rehabilitation for post-COVID-19 syndrome: Results of a clinical program and six-month follow up.] / Rehabilitación neuropsicológica en el síndrome post-COVID-19: resultados de un programa clínico y seguimiento a los seis meses.

INTRODUCTION: Patients with post-COVID-19 syndrome may present cognitive and emotional symptomatology. This study aims to analyse the results of an outpatient neuropsychological intervention program for post-COVID-19 syndrome. METHOD: In June 2020 Institut Guttmann started an outpatient post-COVID-19 neurorehabilitation program, including respiratory therapy, physiotherapy, and neuropsychological rehabilitation. Before and after the program, the cognitive-emotional state of all participants is assessed. Six months after treatment, a follow-up assessment is administered (which includes a collection of information on various aspects of daily life). RESULTS: The sample analysed consisted of 123 patients (mean age: 51 years, SD: 12.41). Seventy-four per cent (n=91) had cognitive impairment and underwent cognitive treatment (experimental group); the remaining 26% (n=32) constituted the control group. After the intervention, the experimental group improved in working memory, verbal memory (learning, recall and recognition), verbal fluency and anxious-depressive symptomatology. The control group showed changes in immediate memory, verbal memory (learning and recognition) and depressive symptomatology, although the effect size in the latter two was smaller than in the experimental group. Six months after treatment, 44.9% of the patients were unable to perform their pre-COVID-19 work activity, and 81.2% reported difficulties in their activities of daily living. CONCLUSIONS: Neuropsychological rehabilitation is an effective tool to treat the cognitive-emotional deficits present in post-COVID-19 syndrome. However, months after the end of treatment, not all patients recover their pre-COVID-19 functional level.

Rehabilitación de la anosognosia en pacientes con heminegligencia visuoespacial / Rehabilitation of anosognosia in patients with unilateral visuospatial neglect

Introducción. Habitualmente, el paciente con heminegligencia visuoespacial secundaria a un ictus no es consciente de que su percepción y exploración del espacio contralesional son defectuosas. Este fenómeno clínico, conocido como anosognosia, condiciona directamente el proceso rehabilitador y amplía sensiblemente su duración, al tiempo que dificulta la adhesión del paciente a dicho proceso. Objetivo. Valorar la eficacia de un programa de rehabilitación específico para el tratamiento de la anosognosia en pacientes que presentan heminegligencia visuoespacial. Pacientes y métodos. Se distribuyó a 12 pacientes con ictus hemisférico derecho en dos grupos. El grupo experimental recibió 15 sesiones de tratamiento cognitivo informatizado junto con 15 sesiones de rehabilitación específicas para la anosognosia. El grupo control realizó 15 sesiones de tratamiento cognitivo informatizado. A todos ellos se les administró, antes y después del tratamiento, una batería de test para evaluar la atención visuoespacial. El nivel de funcionalidad se valoró mediante la Catherine Bergego Scale. Resultados. Tras la intervención, el grupo control mostró diferencias psicométricas estadísticamente significativas. No sucedió lo mismo con el grupo experimental. No se obtuvieron diferencias en las comparaciones intergrupales pre y postratamiento, ni en las medidas psicométricas ni en la escala funcional. Conclusiones. Es necesario seguir realizando investigaciones que nos ayuden a mejorar el tratamiento de la anosognosia en pacientes que presentan heminegligencia visuoespacial. Se plantean algunas recomendaciones metodológicas surgidas de las limitaciones identificadas en el presente estudio

Introduction. Patients with unilateral visuospatial neglect secondary to a stroke are usually unaware of the fact that their perception and exploration of contralesional space are deficient. This clinical phenomenon, know as anosognosia, directly conditions the rehabilitation process and prolongs its duration to a significant extent, while also making it more difficult for the patient to adhere to it. Aim. To assess the efficacy of a specific rehabilitation programme for the treatment of anosognosia in patients presenting with unilateral visuospatial neglect. Patients and methods. Twelve patients with a stroke in the right hemisphere were divided into two groups. The experimental group received 15 sessions of computerised cognitive therapy along with 15 sessions of specific rehabilitation for anosognosia. The control group underwent 15 sessions of computerised cognitive treatment. All of them were administered, before and after treatment, a battery of tests to evaluate visuospatial attention. The level of functionality was evaluated by means of the Catherine Bergego Scale. Results. After the intervention, the control group showed statistically significant psychometric differences. The same did not occur with the experimental group. No differences were obtained in the pre- and post-treatment intergroup comparisons, or in the psychometric measures or on the functional scale. Conclusions. Further research is needed to help us improve the treatment of anosognosia in patients with unilateral visuospatial neglect. Some methodological recommendations emerge from the limitations identified in this study

A Positive Relationship between Cognitive Reserve and Cognitive Function after Stroke: Dynamic Proxies Correlate Better than Static Proxies.

OBJECTIVES: How brain damage after stroke is related to specific clinical manifestation and recovery is incompletely understood. We studied cognitive reserve (CR) in stroke patients by two types of measurements: (i) objectively verifiable static proxies (i.e., education, occupational attainment), and (ii) subjective, dynamic proxies based on patient testimony in response to a questionnaire. We hypothesized that one or both of these types of CR measurements might correlate positively with patient cognitive performance during the post-acute and chronic phases of recovery. METHOD: Thirty-four stroke patients underwent neuropsychological assessment at 2, 6 and 24 months after stroke onset. In chronic stage at 24+ months, self-rating assessments of cognitive performance in daily life and social integration were obtained. CR before and after stroke was estimated using static proxies and dynamic proxies were obtained using the Cognitive Reserve Scale (CRS-Pre-stroke, CRS-Post-stroke). RESULTS: CRS-Pre-stroke and CRS-Post-stroke showed significant mean differences. Dynamic proxies showed positive correlation with self-assessment of attention, metacognition, and functional ability in chronic stage. In contrast, significant correlations between static proxies and cognitive recovery were not found. CONCLUSIONS: Dynamic proxies of CR were positively correlated with patients' perception of their functional abilities in daily life. To best guide cognitive prognosis and treatment, we propose that dynamic proxies of CR should be included in neuropsychological assessments of patients with brain damage.

Visual search in unilateral spatial neglect: The effects of distractors on a dynamic visual search task.

The objective of this study was to examine visual scanning performance in patients with Unilateral Spatial Neglect (USN) in a visual search task. Thirty-one right hemisphere stroke patients with USN were recruited. They performed a dynamic visual search task with two conditions, with and without distractors, while eye movements were monitored with an eye-tracker. The main goal of the task was to select target stimuli that appeared from the top of the screen and moved vertically downward. Target detection and visual scanning percentage were assessed over two hemispaces (right, left) on two conditions (distractor, no distractor). Most Scanned Regions (MSR) were calculated to analyze the areas of the screen where most points of fixation were directed to. Higher target detection rate and visual scanning percentages were found on the right hemispace on both conditions. From the MSRs we found that participants with a center of attention further to the right of the screen also presented smaller overall MSRs. Right hemisphere stroke patients with USN presented not only a significant rightward bias but reduced overall search areas, implying hyperattention does not only restrict search on the horizontal (right-left) axis but the vertical axis (top-bottom) too.

A customized home-based computerized cognitive rehabilitation platform for patients with chronic-stage stroke: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Stroke patients usually suffer primary cognitive impairment related to attention, memory, and executive functions. This impairment causes a negative impact on the quality of life of patients and their families, and may be long term. Cognitive rehabilitation has been shown to be an effective way to treat cognitive impairment and should be continued after hospital discharge. Computerized cognitive rehabilitation can be performed at home using exercise programs that advance with predetermined course content, interval, and pace. We hypothesize that computerized rehabilitation might be improved if a program could customize course content and pace in response to patient-specific progress. The present pilot study is a randomized controlled double-blind crossover clinical trial aiming to study if chronic stroke patients with cognitive impairment could benefit from cognitive training through a customized tele-rehabilitation platform ("Guttmann, NeuroPersonalTrainer"®, GNPT®). METHODS/DESIGN: Individuals with chronic-stage stroke will be recruited. Participants will be randomized to receive experimental intervention (customized tele-rehabilitation platform, GNPT®) or sham intervention (ictus.online), both with the same frequency and duration (five sessions per week over 6 weeks). After a washout period of 3 months, crossover will occur and participants from the GNPT® condition will receive sham intervention, while participants originally from the sham intervention will receive GNPT®. Patients will be assessed before and after receiving each treatment regimen with an exhaustive neuropsychological battery. Primary outcomes will include rating measures that assess attention difficulties, memory failures, and executive dysfunction for daily activities, as well as performance-based measures of attention, memory, and executive functions. DISCUSSION: Customized cognitive training could lead to better cognitive function in patients with chronic-stage stroke and improve their quality of life. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03326349 . Registered 31 October 2017.

Combination treatment in the rehabilitación of visuospatial neglect / Tratamiento combinado en la rehabilitación de la negligencia visuo-espacial

BACKGROUND: Visuo-spatial neglect predicts longer hospitalization, poorer recovery of motor skills and greater functional limitation. The aim of the present study was to analyze whether the combined administration of computerized cognitive rehabilitation with right hemifield eye-patching in patients with left spatial neglect following a right hemisphere stroke is more effective than computerized cognitive rehabilitation applied in isolation. METHOD: Randomized clinical trial conducted in 28 patients. These were grouped into two experimental groups: single treatment group (ST) (n= 15) and combined treatment group (CT) (n= 13). All received an average of 15 one-hour sessions of computerized cognitive rehabilitation using the Guttmann, NeuroPersonalTrainer® telerehabilitation platform. Those patients in the TC group performed the sessions wearing a visual device with which the right hemifield of each eye was occluded. RESULTS: Following treatment, both the ST and the TC group showed improvements in neuropsychological examination protocol although there were no differences pre- and post-treatment on the functional scale in either group. Likewise, no statistically significant differences were observed in intergroup comparison. CONCLUSIONS: The results from this study indicate that combination treatment is not more effective than rehabilitation applied in isolation

ANTECEDENTES: la negligencia visuo-espacial predice mayor tiempo de hospitalización, peor recuperación de las habilidades motoras y limitaciones funcionales. El objetivo fue analizar si la administración combinada de rehabilitación cognitiva informatizada junto con el right hemifield eye patching, en participantes que presentan negligencia espacial izquierda como consecuencia de un ictus hemisférico derecho, es más eficaz que la rehabilitación cognitiva informatizada aplicada de forma aislada. MÉTODO: ensayo clínico aleatorizado realizado con 28 participantes. Dos grupos experimentales: grupo tratamiento único (TU) (n= 15) y grupo tratamiento combinado (TC) (n= 13). Todos ellos recibieron una media de 15 sesiones de rehabilitación cognitiva informatizada de una hora de duración mediante la plataforma de telerehabilitación Guttmann, NeuroPersonalTrainer®. Los participantes del grupo TC las ejecutaron con un dispositivo visual que llevaba el hemicampo derecho de cada ojo ocluido. RESULTADOS: tras el tratamiento, tanto el grupo TU como el TC mostraron mejoras en el protocolo de exploración neuropsicológica aunque no hubo diferencias pre- y post-tratamiento en la escala funcional en ninguno de los dos grupos. Asimismo, no se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la comparación intergrupal. CONCLUSIONES: los resultados derivados de este estudio indican que el tratamiento combinado no es más eficaz que la rehabilitación aplicada de forma aislada

Combination treatment in the rehabilitation of visuo-spatial neglect.

BACKGROUND: Visuo-spatial neglect predicts longer hospitalization, poorer recovery of motor skills and greater functional limitation. The aim of the present study was to analyze whether the combined administration of computerized cognitive rehabilitation with right hemifield eye-patching in patients with left spatial neglect following a right hemisphere stroke is more effective than computerized cognitive rehabilitation applied in isolation. METHOD: Randomized clinical trial conducted in 28 patients. These were grouped into two experimental groups: single treatment group (ST) (n= 15) and combined treatment group (CT) (n= 13). All received an average of 15 one-hour sessions of computerized cognitive rehabilitation using the Guttmann, NeuroPersonalTrainer® telerehabilitation platform. Those patients in the TC group performed the sessions wearing a visual device with which the right hemifield of each eye was occluded. RESULTS: Following treatment, both the ST and the TC group showed improvements in neuropsychological examination protocol although there were no differences pre- and post-treatment on the functional scale in either group. Likewise, no statistically significant differences were observed in intergroup comparison. CONCLUSIONS: The results from this study indicate that combination treatment is not more effective than rehabilitation applied in isolation.

[What is hidden behind the Baking Tray Task? Study of sensibility and specificity in right-hemispheric stroke patients]. / Que se esconde tras el Baking Tray Task? Estudio de sensibilidad y especificidad en sujetos con ictus hemisferico derecho.

INTRODUCTION: Tham and Tegner proposed the Baking Tray Task (BTT) as a fast simple assessment test for detecting spatial negligence. However, very few studies have examined its validity as a diagnostic test. AIM: To analyse the diagnostic validity of the BTT by measuring its specificity and sensitivity in a sample of subjects with right hemisphere strokes. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Forty-eight patients with right hemisphere vascular lesions were distributed in two groups (negligence group, n = 35; non-negligence group, n = 13) according to the scores obtained in a battery of visuospatial examination tests. The participants' performance on the BTT was compared with that of a healthy control group (n = 12). RESULTS: The results showed a high level of sensitivity of the BTT, but low specificity. The performance on the BTT of eight of the 13 members of the non-negligence group was suggestive of negligence. CONCLUSIONS: The BTT has proved to be a sensitive test for the detection of spatial negligence. Yet, based on its low specificity, its use alone as a single diagnostic test is not recommended.

TITLE: Que se esconde tras el Baking Tray Task? Estudio de sensibilidad y especificidad en sujetos con ictus hemisferico derecho.Introduccion. Tham y Tegner propusieron el Baking Tray Task (BTT) como una prueba de evaluacion rapida y simple para la deteccion de negligencia espacial. No obstante, apenas existen estudios que hayan examinado su validez como prueba diagnostica. Objetivo. Analizar la validez diagnostica del BTT, midiendo su especificidad y sensibilidad, en una muestra de sujetos con ictus hemisfericos derechos. Sujetos y metodos. Cuarenta y ocho pacientes con lesiones vasculares hemisfericas derechas distribuidos en dos grupos (grupo negligencia, n = 35; grupo no negligencia, n = 13) en funcion de las puntuaciones obtenidas en una bateria de exploracion visuoespacial. La ejecucion de los participantes en el BTT se comparo con un grupo control sano (n = 12). Resultados. Los resultados mostraron una alta sensibilidad del BTT, pero una baja especificidad. Ocho de los 13 integrantes del grupo no negligencia obtuvieron un rendimiento en el BTT sugestivo de negligencia. Conclusiones. El BTT se muestra como un test sensible para la deteccion de la negligencia espacial. Sin embargo, basandonos en su baja especificidad, no es recomendable su uso aislado como prueba unica de diagnostico.

¿Qué se esconde tras el Baking Tray Task? Estudio de sensibilidad y especificidad en sujetos con ictus hemisférico derecho / What is hidden behind the Baking Tray Task? Study of sensibility and specificity in right-hemispheric stroke patients

Introducción. Tham y Tegnér propusieron el Baking Tray Task (BTT) como una prueba de evaluación rápida y simple para la detección de negligencia espacial. No obstante, apenas existen estudios que hayan examinado su validez como prueba diagnóstica. Objetivo. Analizar la validez diagnóstica del BTT, midiendo su especificidad y sensibilidad, en una muestra de sujetos con ictus hemisféricos derechos. Sujetos y métodos. Cuarenta y ocho pacientes con lesiones vasculares hemisféricas derechas distribuidos en dos grupos (grupo negligencia, n = 35; grupo no negligencia, n = 13) en función de las puntuaciones obtenidas en una batería de exploración visuoespacial. La ejecución de los participantes en el BTT se comparó con un grupo control sano (n = 12). Resultados. Los resultados mostraron una alta sensibilidad del BTT, pero una baja especificidad. Ocho de los 13 integrantes del grupo no negligencia obtuvieron un rendimiento en el BTT sugestivo de negligencia. Conclusiones. El BTT se muestra como un test sensible para la detección de la negligencia espacial. Sin embargo, basándonos en su baja especificidad, no es recomendable su uso aislado como prueba única de diagnóstico (AU)

Introduction. Tham and Tegnér proposed the Baking Tray Task (BTT) as a fast simple assessment test for detecting spatial negligence. However, very few studies have examined its validity as a diagnostic test. Aim. To analyse the diagnostic validity of the BTT by measuring its specificity and sensitivity in a sample of subjects with right hemisphere strokes. Subjects and methods. Forty-eight patients with right hemisphere vascular lesions were distributed in two groups (negligence group, n = 35; non-negligence group, n = 13) according to the scores obtained in a battery of visuospatial examination tests. The participants’ performance on the BTT was compared with that of a healthy control group (n = 12). Results. The results showed a high level of sensitivity of the BTT, but low specificity. The performance on the BTT of eight of the 13 members of the non-negligence group was suggestive of negligence. Conclusions. The BTT has proved to be a sensitive test for the detection of spatial negligence. Yet, based on its low specificity, its use alone as a single diagnostic test is not recommended (AU)

Cognitive rehabilitation with right hemifield eye-patching for patients with sub-acute stroke and visuo-spatial neglect: a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether, following a right-hemisphere stroke, the combined administration of computer-based cognitive rehabilitation and right hemifield eye-patching in patients with visuo-spatial neglect is more effective than computer-based cognitive rehabilitation alone. METHODS: Twelve patients were randomized into two treatment groups: a single treatment group (n = 7) and a combination treatment group (n = 5). In both cases, the treatment consisted of a mean number of 15 sessions, each lasting 1 hour. Visuo-spatial neglect was assessed using a specific exploration protocol (Bell Cancellation Test, Figure Copying of Odgen, Line Bisection, Baking Tray Task and Reading Task). The functional effects of the treatment were assessed using the Catherine Bergego Scale. RESULTS: Significant between-group differences were observed when comparing the pre- and post-treatment scores for the Reading Task. No differences were observed in either group in the Catherine Bergego Scale administered at baseline and at the final intervention. CONCLUSION: The results obtained do not allow one to conclude that the combination treatment with cognitive rehabilitation and right hemifield eye-patching is more effective than cognitive rehabilitation alone. Although partial improvement in the performance of neuropsychological tests was observed, this improvement is not present at functional level.

[Neuropsychotherapy in brain injury rehabilitation]. / Neuropsicoterapia en la rehabilitación del daño cerebral.

INTRODUCTION: Persons who have suffered brain damage can experience a wide range of cognitive, behavioural and emotional disorders. However, neuropsychological rehabilitation usually focuses, almost exclusively, on the cognitive deficits and pays very little attention to the emotional challenges associated with the psychological impact of the lesion. It is in this more personal side of brain damage where neuropsychotherapy can be of great aid to facilitate the process of acceptance and adaptation following a neurological lesion. DEVELOPMENT: In this article, we describe the theoretical and conceptual aspects of psychotherapy oriented towards persons with brain damage, the implications of cognitive deficits in the practice of neuropsychotherapy and the evidence regarding its effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: In the past, neuropsychotherapy was considered to be of little use in the rehabilitation of brain damage. Today, however, a growing number of professionals are acknowledging its importance in the management of the psychological/emotional suffering associated with brain damage. The aim of neuropsychological rehabilitation is not just to promote the recovery of the altered brain functions, but also to improve the individual's functional capacity, deal with his or her experiences of loss and help him or her to again find a meaning to life.

TITLE: Neuropsicoterapia en la rehabilitacion del daño cerebral.Introduccion. Las personas que han sufrido lesiones cerebrales pueden experimentar un amplio abanico de alteraciones cognitivas, conductuales y emocionales. No obstante, la rehabilitacion neuropsicologica acostumbra a centrarse, de manera casi exclusiva, en los deficits cognitivos y presta escasa atencion a los retos emocionales asociados al impacto psicologico de la lesion. En esta faceta mas personal del daño cerebral es donde la neuropsicoterapia puede ser de gran utilidad para facilitar el proceso de aceptacion y adaptacion despues de una lesion neurologica. Desarrollo. En el presente articulo se describen los aspectos teoricos y conceptuales de la psicoterapia orientada a personas con daño cerebral, implicaciones de los deficits cognitivos en la practica de la neuropsicoterapia y evidencias sobre su efectividad. Conclusiones. En el pasado se considero que la neuropsicoterapia tenia escasa utilidad en la rehabilitacion del daño cerebral. Hoy en dia, cada vez son mas los profesionales que reconocen su importancia en el abordaje del sufrimiento psicologico/emocional asociado al daño cerebral. El objetivo de la rehabilitacion neuropsicologica no es unicamente promover la recuperacion de las funciones cerebrales alteradas, sino tambien mejorar la capacidad funcional del individuo, tratar con sus experiencias de perdida y ayudarle a encontrar, de nuevo, sentido a la vida.

Variabilidad interindividual en la recuperación después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico: efecto de la reserva cognitiva / Interindividual variability in recovery after traumatic brain injury: Effect of cognitive reserve

Fundamento y objetivo: Examinar el efecto de la reserva cognitiva en la recuperación tras un traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE) moderado o grave. Diferentes autores proponen que este constructo podría explicar parte de las diferencias interindividuales respecto a la gravedad del TCE, su expresión clínica y posterior recuperación. Pacientes y método: En el estudio participaron 84 pacientes que habían sufrido un TCE moderado o grave. Los participantes se distribuyeron en 2 grupos en función de su nivel educativo y ocupacional premórbido: pacientes con alta reserva cognitiva (n=46) y pacientes con baja reserva cognitiva (n=38). Se utilizó el Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS) para valorar el estado funcional de los pacientes. Resultados: No hubo diferencias significativas entre los grupos para las variables demográficas y clínicas (sexo, edad, gravedad de la lesión, duración de la amnesia postraumática y tiempo de evolución desde la lesión). Se hallaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre ambos grupos en el PCRS: los pacientes con alta reserva cognitiva obtuvieron mejores resultados que los pacientes con baja reserva cognitiva. Conclusiones: Los resultados sugieren que la reserva cognitiva puede mediar en la recuperación después de un TCE moderado o grave. El nivel educativo y la ocupación laboral aportarían una provisión cognitiva que se asociaría con un mejor estado funcional tras la lesión (AU)

Background and objective: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of cognitive reserve in recovery after a moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Different authors proposed that this construct might account for the mismatch between TBI severity, its clinical expression, and subsequent recovery. Patients and method: Eighty-four patients who sustained moderate-to-severe TBI participated in the study. Participants were divided into a high cognitive reserve group (n=46) or low cognitive reserve group (n=38) based on premorbid educational and occupational attainment. Patient's functional status was examined with the Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS). Results: There were no significant differences between groups in demographic and injury variables (sex, age, severity of injury, post-traumatic amnesia duration, and time since injury). The analysis revealed statistically significant differences between the 2 groups on the PCRS: The high cognitive reserve group scored better than the low cognitive reserve group. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that cognitive reserve may mediate recovery after a moderate or severe TBI. Educational and occupational attainments provide a cognitive provision that would be associated with better functional status after injury (AU)

[Interindividual variability in recovery after traumatic brain injury: effect of cognitive reserve]. / Variabilidad interindividual en la recuperación después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico: efecto de la reserva cognitiva.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the effect of cognitive reserve in recovery after a moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Different authors proposed that this construct might account for the mismatch between TBI severity, its clinical expression, and subsequent recovery. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Eighty-four patients who sustained moderate-to-severe TBI participated in the study. Participants were divided into a high cognitive reserve group (n=46) or low cognitive reserve group (n=38) based on premorbid educational and occupational attainment. Patient's functional status was examined with the Patient Competency Rating Scale (PCRS). RESULTS: There were no significant differences between groups in demographic and injury variables (sex, age, severity of injury, post-traumatic amnesia duration, and time since injury). The analysis revealed statistically significant differences between the 2 groups on the PCRS: The high cognitive reserve group scored better than the low cognitive reserve group. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that cognitive reserve may mediate recovery after a moderate or severe TBI. Educational and occupational attainments provide a cognitive provision that would be associated with better functional status after injury.

Diffusion tensor imaging differences relate to memory deficits in diffuse traumatic brain injury.

BACKGROUND: Memory is one of the most impaired functions after traumatic brain injury (TBI). We used diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to determine the structural basis of memory deficit. We correlated fractional anisotropy (FA) of the fasciculi connecting the main cerebral regions that are involved in declarative and working memory functions. METHODS: Fifteen patients with severe and diffuse TBI and sixteen healthy controls matched by age and years of education were scanned. The neuropsychological assessment included: Letter-number sequencing test (LNS), 2-back task, digit span (forwards and backwards) and the Rivermead profilet. DTI was analyzed by a tract-based spatial statics (TBSS) approach. RESULTS: Whole brain DTI analysis showed a global decrease in FA values that correlated with the 2-back d-prime index, but not with the Rivermead profile. ROI analysis revealed positive correlations between working memory performance assessed by 2-back d-prime and superior longitudinal fasciculi, corpus callosum, arcuate fasciculi and fornix. Declarative memory assessed by the Rivermead profile scores correlated with the fornix and the corpus callosum. CONCLUSIONS: Diffuse TBI is associated with a general decrease of white matter integrity. Nevertheless deficits in specific memory domains are related to different patterns of white matter damage.

A longitudinal fMRI study of working memory in severe TBI patients with diffuse axonal injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients have working memory deficits and altered patterns of brain activation during this function. The evolution of the impairment has not been examined to date. This study investigated longitudinal changes in brain activation during a working memory task. Twelve patients with severe and diffuse TBI and ten healthy matched controls were fMRI scanned twice at a 6-month interval during an n-back task (0-, 2- and 3-back). All the TBI patients selected presented signs of diffuse axonal injury on CT but had no evidence of focal lesions on MRI clinical examination. Significant changes in brain activation over time were observed in patients, but not in controls. During the first examination, though both groups engaged bilateral fronto-parietal regions known to be involved in working memory, activation of the right superior frontal gyrus was low in the TBI group. However, the difference between TBI and controls had decreased significantly after 6 months. A factor analysis confirmed the greater increase in activation in the right superior frontal cortex in the TBI group than in healthy controls, leading to normalization of the brain activation pattern. In conclusion, this longitudinal study provides evidence of a progressive normalization of the working memory activation pattern after diffuse axonal injury in severe TBI, coinciding with an improvement in performance on this function.

Frontal hypoactivation on functional magnetic resonance imaging in working memory after severe diffuse traumatic brain injury.

Working memory is frequently impaired after traumatic brain injury (TBI). The present study aimed to investigate working memory deficits in patients with diffuse axonal injury and to determine the contribution of cerebral activation dysfunctions to them. Eighteen patients with severe TBI and 14 healthy controls matched for age and gender were included in the study. TBI patients were selected according to signs of diffuse axonal injury on computed tomography (CT) and without any evidence of focal lesions on MRI clinical examination. Functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) was used to assess brain activation during n-back tasks (0-, 2-, and 3-back). Compared to controls, the TBI group showed significant working memory impairment on the Digits Backwards (p=0.022) and Letter-Number Sequencing subtests from the WAIS-III (p<0.001) under the 2-back (p=0.008) and 3-back (p=0.017) conditions. Both groups engaged bilateral fronto-parietal regions known to be involved in working memory, although patients showed less cerebral activation than did controls. Decreased activation in TBI patients compared to controls was observed mainly in the right superior and middle frontal cortex. The correlation patterns differed between patients and controls: while the control group showed a negative correlation between performance and activation in prefrontal cortex (PFC), TBI patients presented a positive correlation in right parietal and left parahippocampus for the low and high working memory load, respectively. In conclusion, severe TBI patients with diffuse brain damage show a pattern of cerebral hypoactivation in the right middle and superior frontal regions during working memory tasks, and also present an impaired pattern of performance correlations.