"I'm sick of being called a hero - I want to get paid like one": Filipino American frontline workers' health under conditions of COVID-19 and racial capitalism.

Although the era of COVID-19 has reaffirmed the vital role of frontline workers in maintaining a functional society, the ongoing pandemic has taken a devastating toll on their health and well-being. In the United States, Filipino American frontline workers in healthcare and service industries have endured threats to their health, safety, and economic livelihood throughout the pandemic and against the broader backdrop of racialized and xenophobic hate directed toward Asian Americans. Drawing on a qualitative approach, the current study explores work-related health risks and effects of the pandemic for Filipino American frontline workers. Data come from the qualitative arm of a larger mixed-methods study that used a community-based participatory research approach. The current analysis is based on focus group data with thirty-five Filipino American frontline workers, a majority of whom were migrants, that worked across healthcare, caregiving, education, childcare, food services, and retail industries. Situated through the lens of racial capitalism, themes included: (1) work-related stress, tensions, and trauma, (2) anti-Asian racism and intersections with age- and gender-based violence, and (3) working while ill and distressed. Study findings can inform interventions and policies to improve health, occupational environments, and labor conditions in order to support minoritized communities disproportionately affected by COVID-19.

Effects of Trauma and Postmigration Stress on Refugee Women's Health: A Life Course Perspective.

Trauma exposure and postmigration stress are associated with adverse health outcomes among refugees, yet the relative effect of these factors for subgroups of refugees and those resettled long-term remains unclear. Drawing on life course theory, this study evaluated the associations between war trauma, postmigration stress, and health among Southeast Asian refugee women in the United States, and whether these patterns differ across the life span. A community sample of Vietnamese and Cambodian refugee women aged 30-72 years (N = 293) reported mental and physical health outcomes, conflict-based trauma exposure, and postmigration measures of discrimination and community violence. Both trauma exposure and discrimination were associated with mental and physical health problems, with the relative effect of each stressor varying across specific health outcomes; community violence was associated with poorer mental health. Age moderated the effect of trauma exposure across health outcomes, with stronger associations between trauma and health for older women in particular. Findings provide support for the influence of trauma exposure and the importance of postmigration stressors on health across the life span for refugees. Attending to age group differences in the effects of these stressors, and to subgroups such as women, has implications for interventions addressing the long-term health of refugee populations.

Trauma, Post-Migration Stress, and Mental Health: A Comparative Analysis of Refugees and Immigrants in the United States.

Numerous studies describe mental health effects of pre-migration trauma and post-resettlement stress among refugees, yet less research examines these associations with non-refugee immigrants. Additionally, few studies assess the prevalence and impact of traumatic experiences after settlement in a new country. Using a U.S.-based representative sample of Asian (n = 1637) and Latino (n = 1620) refugees and immigrants, we investigated how traumatic events prior to and after migration, and post-migration stressors, are associated with mental illness and distress. Pre-migration trauma posed risk across a broad range of psychological outcomes for Asian refugees and Latino immigrants. Deleterious effects of post-migration trauma were notable for both groups of refugees and immigrants. Discrimination, acculturative stress, and family conflict increased risk for disorder and distress across groups in complex ways. Findings highlight the importance of examining trauma and stress at pre- and post-migration phases across migrant populations, including those not labeled as refugees.

Effects of maternal traumatic distress on family functioning and child mental health: An examination of Southeast Asian refugee families in the U.S.

BACKGROUND: The psychological effects of trauma are well-documented among refugee adults and children alone, yet less research has attended to the intergenerational transmission of trauma within refugee families. Additionally, there is considerable diversity between refugee populations as well as within-group variation in the experiences and effects of refugee trauma. OBJECTIVE: The current study examines the longitudinal effects of maternal traumatic distress on family functioning and child mental health outcomes among Southeast Asian refugee women and their adolescent children. Given the potential for variation in these effects, we also explore group differences in these relationships by ethnicity and child nativity. METHODS: Longitudinal data were collected from a random sample of 327 Southeast Asian refugee mothers and their children in the United States. We employed structural equation modeling to examine associations between latent variables representing maternal traumatic distress, family functioning, and child mental health outcomes (i.e., depressive symptoms, antisocial and delinquent behavior, and school problems). We then tested for group differences in these associations by ethnicity (Cambodian and Vietnamese subgroups) and child nativity (U.S.-born and foreign-born children). RESULTS: We found maternal traumatic distress was indirectly linked to child mental health outcomes, and that child nativity was associated with these paths while ethnicity was not. For foreign-born children, maternal traumatic distress was associated with diminished family functioning a year later, which was associated with increased school problems at the two-year mark. Maternal traumatic distress was indirectly associated with depressive symptoms and antisocial and delinquent behavior, respectively, after accounting for family functioning. For all children, weaker family functioning was significantly associated with poorer mental health. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that refugee parents' trauma can adversely affect family relationships and the mental health of children. Interventions that address parental trauma and support intergenerational relationships may enhance mental health within refugee communities for future generations.

Intergenerational Trauma in Refugee Families: A Systematic Review.

Although a robust literature describes the intergenerational effects of traumatic experiences in various populations, evidence specific to refugee families is scattered and contains wide variations in approaches for examining intergenerational trauma. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) criteria, the purpose of this systematic review was to describe the methodologies and findings of peer-reviewed literature regarding intergenerational trauma in refugee families. In doing so we aimed to critically examine how existing literature characterizes refugee trauma, its long-term effects on descendants, and psychosocial processes of transmission in order to provide recommendations for future research. The results highlight populations upon which current evidence is based, conceptualizations of refugee trauma, effects of parental trauma transmission on descendants' health and well-being, and mechanisms of transmission and underlying meanings attributed to parental trauma in refugee families. Greater methodological rigor and consistency in future evidence-based research is needed to inform supportive systems that promote the health and well-being of refugees and their descendants.

Bullying among Urban Mexican-heritage Youth: Exploring Risk for Substance Use by Status as a Bully, Victim, and Bully-Victim.

Little is known about adolescent bullying behavior and its relationship to substance use in ethnic minority populations. In a sample of youth of Mexican heritage, the current study aimed to examine the prevalence of bullying behavior subtypes and its co-occurrence with recent alcohol, cigarette, and inhalant use. Data come from a school-based substance use prevention study in the Southwestern U.S. (n=809). We explored the prevalence of bullying behavior by status among youth classified as bullies, victims, bully-victims, and rarely-involved bully-victims in an urban context. We also investigated risk of past 30-day use of alcohol, cigarettes, and inhalants by bullying behavior status. Compared to non-involved youth, rarely-involved bully-victims were more likely to use alcohol, bullies were more likely to engage in alcohol and cigarette use, and bully-victims were more likely to use alcohol, cigarettes, and inhalants. In contrast, victims were not significantly at risk of substance use compared to non-involved youth. Chronic bullies and bully-victims are particularly at risk for substance use, with chronic bully-victims reflecting the greatest risk of using multiple substances. Prevention and early intervention programs aimed to reduce bullying can also work to decrease other risky behaviors, such as substance use, and should attend to the growing ethnic diversity among youth.

Personal discrimination and satisfaction with life: Exploring perceived functional effects of Asian American race/ethnicity as a moderator.

OBJECTIVES: This study aims to understand the relations between experiences of racial/ethnic discrimination, perceptions of the harmful or helpful effects of one's Asian American race/ethnicity within educational and occupational contexts (perceived functional effects), and well-being (i.e., satisfaction with life). A primary focus was to evaluate whether the association between racial/ethnic discrimination and satisfaction with life varied based on the degree to which Asian Americans believe that their race or ethnicity is helpful or harmful to educational and occupational functioning. METHOD: This study draws on nationally representative data from ethnically diverse Asian American adults (N = 3,335) and utilizes weighted descriptive, correlational, and logistic regression moderation analyses. RESULTS: Ethnic variations emerged across analyses. Logistic regression analyses revealed a significant moderation effect for Chinese and Filipino Americans. Follow-up analyses revealed a protective effect of perceiving more positive or helpful functional effects in nullifying the link between discrimination and dissatisfaction with life for Chinese Americans. By contrast, viewing more harmful functional effects had a buffering effect for Filipino Americans. CONCLUSIONS: Results have implications for conceptualizing the potential impact of perspectives that imply Asian American advantage or disadvantage. Opportunities to apply and extend these initial findings are discussed.

The Impact of Employment and Self-Rated Economic Condition on the Subjective Well-Being of Older Korean Immigrants.

Extensive research has demonstrated a relationship between socioeconomic factors and health among older adults, yet fewer studies have explored this relationship with older immigrants. This study aims to examine the influence of employment and self-rated economic condition on the subjective well-being of older Korean immigrants in the United States. Data were drawn from a cross-sectional study of 205 older Korean immigrants, aged 65 to 90, in Los Angeles County. Hierarchical regression was employed to explore the independent and interactive effects of employment status and self-rated economic condition. The study found that employment and self-rated economic status were positively associated with subjective well-being. Also, the interaction between employment and self-rated economic status was significantly associated with higher levels of subjective well-being, such that the influence of self-rated economic condition was stronger for unemployed older Korean immigrants compared with those who were employed. This population-based study provides empirical evidence that employment and self-rated economic condition are directly associated with subjective well-being for older Korean immigrants.

Development and Validation of a Racial Discrimination Measure for Cambodian American Adolescents.

To date, the majority of studies examining experiences of racial discrimination among youth use measures initially developed for African American and Latino adults or college students. Few studies have attended to the ways in which discrimination experiences may be unique for Asian American youth, particularly subgroups such as Southeast Asians. The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to describe the development of a racial discrimination measure using community-based participatory research with Cambodian American adolescents and (b) to psychometrically test the measure with respect to validity and reliability. This research used mixed-methods and comprised 3 phases. Phase 1 consisted of qualitative focus group research to assess community-identified needs. Phase 2 included quantitative survey development with community members and resulted in an 18-item measure assessing the frequency of ethnicity-based discrimination. Phase 3 involved psychometric testing of the measure's validity and reliability (n = 423). Exploratory factor analysis procedures yielded a 3-factor structure describing peer, school, and police discrimination from all items, capturing 96% of the combined variance. Using confirmatory factor analysis, the data demonstrated good fit with the 3-factor structure (CFI = .98; RMSEA = .054), with factor loadings ranging from .59 to .96 and all estimates statistically significant at the p < .05 level. Correlational analyses of racial discrimination subfactors and depression supported concurrent validity. In sum, this measure can be used to examine the degree and sources of racial discrimination reported by Cambodian American adolescents and potentially other adolescents of Southeast Asian descent living in diverse urban communities.

Using community-based participatory research to identify health issues for Cambodian American youth.

Lack of data disaggregated by ethnic group and the widespread perception of Asian Americans as "model minorities" often masks the health needs of specific groups within the Asian American population. Limited research focuses on health and psychological well-being among Cambodian American youth despite risk of negative educational and behavioral outcomes as well as high levels of trauma and psychiatric symptoms among first-generation Cambodian refugee adults. This article describes the development of a health survey with Cambodian American youth using community-based participatory research (and illustrates how youth can actively engage in research to inform change in health-related programs and policies.

Depression and anxiety among Asian Americans: the effects of social support and strain.

It is almost taken for granted that social relationships benefit mental health, yet these relationships may not always be protective. This study examines how the support and strains individuals derive from family and friends may be related to depression and anxiety among Asian Americans. Data come from the 2002-2003 National Latino and Asian American Study, the first nationally representative study of mental health outcomes among Asian Americans (n = 2,066). Results indicate that family support was associated with decreased odds of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed., text rev.) criteria for both major depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) among men and women. In addition, family strain was associated with increased odds of GAD equally among men and women. However, friend strain was associated with increased odds of GAD among women but not men, and family strain was marginally associated with increased odds of MDD for women but was unrelated for men. The findings affirm the need to consider social strain along with social support, as well as their sources, with attention to the potentially stronger effects of strain for women. Implications for social work practice are discussed.

Effects of acculturation and social network support on depression among elderly Korean immigrants.

OBJECTIVE: Acculturation and social network support have been identified as predictors of mental health for immigrant and elderly populations. The present study examined both independent and interactive effects of acculturation and social network support on depressive symptomatology among elderly Korean immigrants. METHOD: Self-reported measures included sociodemographic characteristics, acculturation, social network support, and depressive symptoms. This study used cross-sectional analysis of a community-based cohort. RESULTS: After controlling for the effects of demographic variables, a robust hierarchical regression model indicated that social network support was negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Also, the interaction between acculturation and social network was significantly associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms (ß = -0.29, p < 0.05). In other words, elderly Korean immigrants who had high social network support and were highly acculturated exhibited lower levels of depression compared to those who had low support and were highly acculturated. CONCLUSION: Our findings call attention to the role of social network support in the mental health of elderly Korean immigrants. Service providers can develop strategies for decreasing depression by increasing social network support, especially with family members, among their elderly parents.