Cinnarizine: A Contemporary Review.

Cinnarizine, is approved for nausea, vomiting, motion sickness, inner ear disorders and is considered as first-line pharmacotherapy for management of vertigo. It acts by anti-vasoconstrictor activity, reducing blood viscosity and reducing nystagmus in labyrinth. Lack of adequate literature on clinical evidence of cinnarizine and its combination (dimenhydrinate) in vertigo management prompted this review. A specific MEDLINE literature search strategy was designed combining Medical Subject Headings, free-text keywords (like cinnarizine and vertigo) using Boolean operators (1970-2016) for clinical studies, clinical reviews and meta-analyses of cinnarizine. Analyses of studies validated cinnarizine's efficacy in peripheral and central vertigo versus placebo or other therapies, and was well-tolerated by the patients recruited across different studies. Cinnarizine and/ or its combinations are favorable in management of vestibular disorders wherein cinnarizine acts predominantly peripherally on labyrinth and dimenhydrinate acts centrally on vestibular nuclei and associated centers in brainstem. Combination therapy of cinnarizine and/ or its combinations demonstrated a better safety profile than either of the mono-components, offering a viable therapeutic option in vertigo management.

Defining Disease Progression and Drug Durability in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

This communication shares insights into the definition of disease progression and drug durability in type 2 diabetes. Disease progression may be defined as gradual worsening of beta-cell function, clinically observed as an increase in drug dosage, drug frequency or number of glucose lowering drugs needed to maintain HbA1c control; and/or a ≥0.5% rise in HbA1c, unexplained by acute, modifiable factors, while using the same drug regimen; and/or as the occurrence or worsening of cardiovascular or microvascular complications, in spite of standard care, over a pre-specified time period. Durability of a drug or a drug combination may be defined as its ability to postpone or delay progression of disease, in a safe and well tolerated manner. Thus, all drugs that are able to prevent disease progression (i.e., postpone loss of glycaemic control, need for intensification of therapy or onset or worsening of complications) may be termed 'durable'.

Sodium-glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors: Moving Beyond the Glycemic Treatment Goal.

Revelations of the multifactorial pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) that extend beyond the role of insulin and glucose utilization have been crucial in redefining the treatment paradigm. The focus of treatment is currently directed towards achieving wide-ranging targets encompassing the management of cardiovascular comorbidities that have been evidenced as indispensable aspects of T2DM. While most currently prescribed antihyperglycemic agents have little or no effect on reducing cardiovascular risks, some have been associated with undesirable effects on common risk factors such as weight gain and cardiovascular sequelae. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are newer additions to the array of therapeutic agents for T2DM that have demonstrated robust glycemic control as mono and add-on therapies. Their unique renal mode of action, independent of insulin modulation, confers complementary metabolic benefits. By virtue of these effects, SGLT2i may have a distinct role in the revised treatment recommendations by established working groups such as the American Diabetes Association and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists that advocate a more comprehensive management of T2DM, not restricting to glycemic targets. The current review gives an overview of the changing treatment needs for T2DM and discusses the nonglycemic effects of SGLT2i. It provides an updated summary on the efficacy of canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin in promoting weight loss, stabilizing blood pressure, and other favorable metabolic effects.