Detection of programmed cell death in cells exposed to genotoxic agents using a caspase activation assay.

Many toxins that individuals are exposed to cause DNA damage. Cells that have sustained DNA damage may attempt to repair the damage prior to replication. However, if a cell has sustained serious damage it cannot repair, it will commit suicide through a genetically regulated programmed cell death (PCD) pathway. Crucial to the ultimate execution of PCD is a family of cysteine proteases called caspases. Activation of these enzymes occurs late enough in the PCD pathway that a cell can no longer avoid cell death, but still earlier than PCD-associated morphological changes or DNA fragmentation. This protocol details a method for using fluorochrome-conjugated caspase inhibitors for the detection of activated caspases in intact cells. The analysis and documentation is performed using fluorescence microscopy.

CBFB and MYH11 in inv(16)(p13q22) of acute myeloid leukemia displaying close spatial proximity in interphase nuclei of human hematopoietic stem cells.

To gain a better understanding of the mechanism of chromosomal translocations in cancer, we investigated the spatial proximity between CBFB and MYH11 genes involved in inv(16)(p13q22) found in patients with acute myeloid leukemia. Previous studies have demonstrated a role for spatial genome organization in the formation of tumorigenic abnormalities. The nonrandom localization of chromosomes and, more specifically, of genes appears to play a role in the mechanism of chromosomal translocations. Here, two-color fluorescence in situ hybridization and confocal microscopy were used to measure the interphase distance between CBFB and MYH11 in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), where inv(16)(p13q22) is believed to occur, leading to leukemia development. The measured distances in HSCs were compared with mesenchymal stem cells, peripheral blood lymphocytes, and fibroblasts, as spatial genome organization is determined to be cell-type specific. Results indicate that CBFB and MYH11 are significantly closer in HSCs compared with all other cell types examined. Furthermore, the CBFB-MYH11 distance is significantly reduced compared with CBFB and a control locus in HSCs, although separation between CBFB and the control is ∼70% of that between CBFB and MYH11 on metaphase chromosomes. HSCs were also treated with fragile site-inducing chemicals because both the genes contain translocation breakpoints within these regions. However, treatment with fragile site-inducing chemicals did not significantly affect the interphase distance. Consistent with previous studies, our results suggest that gene proximity may play a role in the formation of cancer-causing rearrangements, providing insight into the mechanism of chromosomal abnormalities in human tumors.

Frequent engagement of the classical and alternative NF-kappaB pathways by diverse genetic abnormalities in multiple myeloma.

Mechanisms of constitutive NF-kappaB signaling in multiple myeloma are unknown. An inhibitor of IkappaB kinase beta (IKKbeta) targeting the classical NF-kappaB pathway was lethal to many myeloma cell lines. Several cell lines had elevated expression of NIK due to genomic alterations or protein stabilization, while others had inactivating mutations of TRAF3; both kinds of abnormality triggered the classical and alternative NF-kappaB pathways. A majority of primary myeloma patient samples and cell lines had elevated NF-kappaB target gene expression, often associated with genetic or epigenetic alteration of NIK, TRAF3, CYLD, BIRC2/BIRC3, CD40, NFKB1, or NFKB2. These data demonstrate that addiction to the NF-kappaB pathway is frequent in myeloma and suggest that IKKbeta inhibitors hold promise for the treatment of this disease.

Frequent gain of chromosome band 1q21 in plasma-cell dyscrasias detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization: incidence increases from MGUS to relapsed myeloma and is related to prognosis and disease progression following tandem stem-cell transplantation.

Using fluorescence in situ hybridization we investigated amplification of chromosome band 1q21 (Amp1q21) in more than 500 untreated patients with monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS; n = 14), smoldering multiple myeloma (SMM; n = 31), and newly diagnosed MM (n = 479) as well as 45 with relapsed MM. The frequency of Amp1q21 was 0% in MGUS, 45% in SMM, 43% in newly diagnosed MM, and 72% in relapsed MM (newly diagnosed versus relapsed MM, P < .001). Amp1q21 was detected in 10 of 12 patients whose disease evolved to active MM compared with 4 of 19 who remained with SMM (P < .001). Patients with newly diagnosed MM with Amp1q21 had inferior 5-year event-free/overall survival compared with those lacking Amp1q21 (38%/52% versus 62%/78%, both P < .001). Thalidomide improved 5-year EFS in patients lacking Amp1q21 but not in those with Amp1q21 (P = .004). Multivariate analysis including other major predictors revealed that Amp1q21 was an independent poor prognostic factor. Relapsed patients who had Amp1q21 at relapse had inferior 5-year postrelapse survival compared with those lacking Amp1q21 at relapse (15% versus 53%, P = .027). The proportion of cells with Amp1q21 and the copy number of 1q21 tended to increase at relapse compared with diagnosis. Our data suggest that Amp1q21 is associated with both disease progression and poor prognosis.

Correlation of TACC3, FGFR3, MMSET and p21 expression with the t(4;14)(p16.3;q32) in multiple myeloma.

The t(4;14)(p16;q32) translocation seen in c. 18% of newly diagnosed multiple myeloma (MM) cases, results in FGFR3 activation and creation of an IGH/MMSET fusion transcript. We have recently shown that FGFR3 is activated in only 75% of t(4;14)(+) cases, suggesting that alternative genes near the breakpoint may be involved in the transforming event. The gene, TACC3, located just 50 kb telomeric of FGFR3, with transforming capacity, therefore represented a candidate gene. Using a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction-based approach on a cohort of 54 patients, we found a statistically significant, twofold increase in TACC3 expression in t(4;14)(+) cases. TACC3, MMSET and p21 values were positively correlated in all cases and, of particular interest, six patient samples [three t(4;14)(-), three t(4;14)(+)] samples showed a joint up-regulation of TACC3, MMSET and p21. Although a poor prognosis is linked with elevated MMSET expression, an extended follow-up period will be required to evaluate the significance of elevated TACC3 and p21 expression in this subgroup of MM.

A subset of multiple myeloma harboring the t(4;14)(p16;q32) translocation lacks FGFR3 expression but maintains an IGH/MMSET fusion transcript.

Previous studies have revealed that that approximately 10% to 15% of multiple myelomas (MMs) are characterized by a reciprocal t(4;14)(p16;q32) translocation that activates expression of FGFR3 and creates an IGH/MMSET fusion transcript. Current data suggest that activation of FGFR3 is the oncogenic consequence of this rearrangement. Using a combination of microarray profiling, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and interphase fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), we show that 32 (18%) of 178 newly diagnosed cases of MM harbor the t(4;14)(p16;q32). Importantly, 32% of these cases lack expression of FGFR3, yet express MMSET and have an IGH/MMSET fusion transcript. Interphase FISH showed that whereas the IGH/MMSET fusion was present in more than 80% of the clonotypic plasma cells in these novel cases, there was typically a complete loss of one copy of FGFR3. These data indicate that the t(4;14)(p16;q32) and loss of FGFR3 occurred at a very early stage and suggest that activation of MMSET, not FGFR3, may be the critical transforming event of this recurrent translocation.

Induction of micronuclei by zinc in human leukocytes: a study using cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay.

In the present study, we report the results of the capability of zinc chloride for the induction of micronuclei in cultured human leukocytes using cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay. Two concentrations of zinc chloride (1.5 x 10(-4) M and 3.0 x 10(-4) M) were used to evaluate the potential of this zinc salt to induce micronucleus formation. This effect was compared with positive (mitomycin C treated) and negative controls (no salt added). Our results show a significant (p < or = 0.001) increase of micronucleated cytokinesis-blocked cells (MNCBs) in zinc-chloride-treated cells compared to the negative control. Induction of MNCBs was not in a dose-dependent manner for zinc chloride concentrations tested. This report is the first to describe the efficiency of cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay to evaluate the genotoxic effects of zinc salt.