The microRNAs in an ancient protist repress the variant-specific surface protein expression by targeting the entire coding sequence.

microRNAs (miRNA) have been detected in the deeply branched protist, Giardia lamblia, and shown to repress expression of the family of variant-specific surface proteins (VSPs), only one of which is expressed in Giardia trophozoite at a given time. Three next-generation sequencing libraries of Giardia Argonaute-associated small RNAs were constructed and analyzed. Analysis of the libraries identified a total of 99 new putative miRNAs with a size primarily in the 26 nt range similar to the size previously predicted by the Giardia Dicer crystal structure and identified by our own studies. Bioinformatic analysis identified multiple putative miRNA target sites in the mRNAs of all 73 VSPs. The effect of miRNA target sites within a defined 3'-region were tested on two vsp mRNAs. All the miRNAs showed partial repression of the corresponding vsp expression and were additive when the targeting sites were separately located. But the combined repression still falls short of 100%. Two other relatively short vsp mRNAs with 15 and 11 putative miRNA target sites identified throughout their ORFs were tested with their corresponding miRNAs. The results indicate that; (1) near 100% repression of vsp mRNA expression can be achieved through the combined action of multiple miRNAs on target sites located throughout the ORF; (2) the miRNA machinery could be instrumental in repressing the expression of vsp genes in Giardia; (3) this is the first time that all the miRNA target sites in the entire ORF of a mRNA have been tested and shown to be functional.

Experimental verification of the identity of variant-specific surface proteins in Giardia lamblia trophozoites.

The cell membrane of a Giardia lamblia trophozoite is covered with a single species of variant-specific surface protein (VSP) that is replaced by another VSP every 6 to 13 generations of cell growth, possibly for an evasion of host immunity. Experimentally, only six VSP species have been verified to localize to the cell membrane thus far. By assuming that VSP contains multiple CXXC motifs, 219 vsp genes were annotated in GiardiaDB of the WB isolate. By further assuming that VSP possesses both CXXC motifs and a CRGKA tail at the C terminus, Adam et al. (BMC Genomics 11:424, 2010) identified a total of 303 potential vsp genes in Giardia WB. The discrepancies between these two assumed VSP identities have caused some confusion. Here, we used experimental approaches to further verify what is required of the structures of a VSP to localize to the surface of cell membrane. The data led to the following conclusions. (i) The C-terminal CRGKA sequence is not essential for localizing VSPs to the cell membrane. (ii) A "motif 1" of 45 residues, consisting of two CXXCs separated by 12 to 15 amino acid residues, located close to the C terminus and a hydrophobic "motif 2" of 38 residues at the C terminus are both essential and sufficient for localizing the protein to the cell membrane. (ii) An N-terminal sequence upstream from motif 1 is not required for targeting VSPs to the cell membrane. By these criteria, we are able to identify 73 open reading frames as the putative vsp genes in Giardia. IMPORTANCE The intestinal pathogen Giardia lamblia expresses only one variant-specific surface protein (VSP) on the cell membrane surface at a given time, but it changes spontaneously every 6 to 13 generations of growth, presumably for evading the host immunity. Only 6 VSPs have been empirically shown to localize to the cell membrane surface thus far. Here, we used mutations of VSPs and methods of identifying their locations in Giardia cells and found that a "motif 1" of 45 residues, consisting of two CXXCs separated by 12 to 15 amino acid residues, located close to the C terminus and a hydrophobic "motif 2" of 38 residues at the C terminus are the only essential and sufficient structural requirements for localizing a protein to the cell membrane. By these criteria, 73 genes are identified in the Giardia WB strain genome database as the putative repertoire of VSPs.

Transition of a microRNA from repressing to activating translation depending on the extent of base pairing with the target.

MicroRNAs are major post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression. Here we show in the ancient protozoan Giardia lamblia a snoRNA-derived 26-nucleotide microRNA, miR3, which represses the translation of histone H2A mRNA containing an imperfect target but enhances translation when the target is made fully complementary. A stepwise mutational analysis of the fully complementary target showed that the activating effect of miR3 was significantly reduced when a single nucleotide at the 5'-end of the target was altered. The effect of miR3 became repressive when 12 of the nucleotides lost their complementation to miR3 with maximum repression reached when only 8 base-pairs remained between the miR3 seed sequence and the target. A synthetic 8-nucleotide RNA oligomer of the miR3 seed sequence was found capable of exerting a similar Argonaute-dependent translational repression. This is the first report showing a correlation between the extent of base-pairing with the target and a change in miRNA function.

The profile of snoRNA-derived microRNAs that regulate expression of variant surface proteins in Giardia lamblia.

In the current investigation, we analysed all the known small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) in the deeply branching protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia for potential microRNAs (miRNAs) that might be derived from them. Two putative miRNAs have since been identified by Northern blot, primer extension, 3' RACE and co-immunoprecipitation with Giardia Argonaute (GlAgo), and designated miR6 and miR10. Giardia Dicer (GlDcr) is capable of processing the snoRNAs into the corresponding miRNAs in vitro. Potential miR6 and miR10 binding sites in Giardia genome were predicted bio-informatically. A miR6 binding site was found at the 3' untranslated regions (UTR) of 44 variant surface protein (vsp) genes, whereas a miR10 binding site was identified at the 3' end of 159 vsp open-reading frames. Thirty-three of these vsp genes turned out to contain binding sites for both miR6 and miR10. A reporter mRNA tagged with the 3' end of vsp1267, which contains the target sites for both miRNAs, was translationally repressed by both miRNAs in Giardia. Episomal expression of an N-terminal c-myc tagged VSP1267 was found significantly repressed by introducing either miR6 or miR10 into the cells and the repressive effects were additive. When the 2'-O-methyl antisense oligos (ASOs) of either miR6 or miR10 was introduced, however, there was an enhancement of tagged VSP1267 expression suggesting an inhibition of the repressive effects of endogenous miR6 or miR10 by the ASOs. Of the total 220 vsp genes in Giardia, we have now found 178 of them carrying putative binding sites for all the miRNAs that have been currently identified, suggesting that miRNAs are likely the regulators of VSP expression in Giardia.

Gene regulation in Giardia lambia involves a putative microRNA derived from a small nucleolar RNA.

Two core microRNA (miRNA) pathway proteins, Dicer and Argonaute, are found in Giardia lamblia, a deeply branching parasitic protozoan. There are, however, no apparent homologues of Drosha or Exportin5 in the genome. Here, we report a 26 nucleotide (nt) RNA derived from a 106 nt Box C/D snoRNA, GlsR2. This small RNA, designated miR5, localizes to the 3' end of GlsR2 and has a 75 nt hairpin precursor. GlsR2 is processed by the Dicer from Giardia (GlDcr) and generated miR5. Immunoprecipitation of the Argonaute from Giardia (GlAgo) brought down miR5. When a Renilla Luciferase transcript with a 26 nt miR5 antisense sequence at the 3'-untranslated region (3' UTR) was introduced into Giardia trophozoites, Luciferase expression was reduced ∼25% when synthetic miR5 was also introduced. The Luciferase mRNA level remained, however, unchanged, suggesting translation repression by miR5. This inhibition was fully reversed by introducing also a 2'-O-methylated antisense inhibitor of miR5, suggesting that miR5 acts by interacting specifically with the antisense sequence in the mRNA. A partial antisense knock down of GlDcr or GlAgo in Giardia indicated that the former is needed for miR5 biogenesis whereas the latter is required for miR5-mediated translational repression. Potential targets for miR5 with canonical seed sequences were predicted bioinformatically near the stop codon of Giardia mRNAs. Four out of the 21 most likely targets were tested in the Luciferase reporter assay. miR5 was found to inhibit Luciferase expression (∼20%) of transcripts carrying these potential target sites, indicating that snoRNA-derived miRNA can regulate the expression of multiple genes in Giardia.

A microRNA derived from an apparent canonical biogenesis pathway regulates variant surface protein gene expression in Giardia lamblia.

We have previously shown that a snoRNA-derived microRNA, miR2, in Giardia lamblia potentially regulates the expression of 22 variant surface protein (VSP) genes. Here, we identified another miRNA, miR4, also capable of regulating the expression of several VSPs but derived from an unannotated open reading frame (ORF) rather than a snoRNA, suggesting a canonical miRNA biogenesis pathway in Giardia. miR4 represses expression of a reporter containing two miR4 antisense sequences at the 3' UTR without causing a corresponding decrease in the mRNA level. This repression requires the presence of the Giardia Argonaute protein (GlAgo) and is reversed by 2' O-methylated antisense oligo to miR4, suggesting an RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC)-mediated mechanism. Furthermore, in vivo and in vitro evidence suggested that the Giardia Dicer protein (GlDcr) is required for miR4 biogenesis. Coimmunoprecipitation of miR4 with GlAgo further verified miR4 as a miRNA. A total of 361 potential target sites for miR4 were bioinformatically identified in Giardia, out of which 69 (32.7%) were associated with VSP genes. miR4 reduces the expression of a reporter containing two copies of the target site from VSP (GL50803_36493) at the 3' UTR. Sixteen of the 69 VSP genes were further found to contain partially overlapping miR2 and miR4 targeting sites. Expression of a reporter carrying the two overlapping sites was inhibited by either miR2 or miR4, but the inhibition was neither synergistic nor additive, suggesting a complex mechanism of miRNA regulation of VSP expression and the presence of a rich miRNAome in Giardia.

A La autoantigen homologue is required for the internal ribosome entry site mediated translation of giardiavirus.

Translation of Giardiavirus (GLV) mRNA is initiated at an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) in the viral transcript. The IRES localizes to a downstream portion of 5' untranslated region (UTR) and a part of the early downstream coding region of the transcript. Recent studies indicated that the IRES does not require a pre-initiation complex to initiate translation but may directly recruit the small ribosome subunit with the help of a number of trans-activating protein factors. A La autoantigen homologue in the viral host Giardia lamblia, GlLa, was proposed as one of the potential trans-activating factors based on its specific binding to GLV-IRES in vitro. In this study, we further elucidated the functional role of GlLa in GLV-IRES mediated translation in Giardia by knocking down GlLa with antisense morpholino oligo, which resulted in a reduction of GLV-IRES activity by 40%. An over-expression of GlLa in Giardia moderately stimulated GLV-IRES activity by 20%. A yeast inhibitory RNA (IRNA), known to bind mammalian and yeast La autoantigen and inhibit Poliovirus and Hepatitis C virus IRES activities in vitro and in vivo, was also found to bind to GlLa protein in vitro and inhibited GLV-IRES function in vivo. The C-terminal domain of La autoantigen interferes with the dimerization of La and inhibits its function. An over-expression of the C-terminal domain (200-348aa) of GlLa in Giardia showed a dominant-negative effect on GLV-IRES activity, suggesting a potential inhibition of GlLa dimerization. HA tagged GlLa protein was detected mainly in the cytoplasm of Giardia, thus supporting a primary role of GlLa in translation initiation in Giardiavirus.

snoRNA, a novel precursor of microRNA in Giardia lamblia.

An Argonaute homolog and a functional Dicer have been identified in the ancient eukaryote Giardia lamblia, which apparently lacks the ability to perform RNA interference (RNAi). The Giardia Argonaute plays an essential role in growth and is capable of binding specifically to the m(7)G-cap, suggesting a potential involvement in microRNA (miRNA)-mediated translational repression. To test such a possibility, small RNAs were isolated from Giardia trophozoites, cloned, and sequenced. A 26-nucleotide (nt) small RNA (miR2) was identified as a product of Dicer-processed snoRNA GlsR17 and localized to the cytoplasm by fluorescence in situ hybridization, whereas GlsR17 was found primarily in the nucleolus of only one of the two nuclei in Giardia. Three other small RNAs were also identified as products of snoRNAs, suggesting that the latter could be novel precursors of miRNAs in Giardia. Putative miR2 target sites were identified at the 3'-untranslated regions (UTR) of 22 variant surface protein mRNAs using the miRanda program. In vivo expression of Renilla luciferase mRNA containing six identical miR2 target sites in the 3'-UTR was reduced by 40% when co-transfected with synthetic miR2, while the level of luciferase mRNA remained unaffected. Thus, miR2 likely affects translation but not mRNA stability. This repression, however, was not observed when Argonaute was knocked down in Giardia using a ribozyme-antisense RNA. Instead, an enhancement of luciferase expression was observed, suggesting a loss of endogenous miR2-mediated repression when this protein is depleted. Additionally, the level of miR2 was significantly reduced when Dicer was knocked down. In all, the evidence indicates the presence of a snoRNA-derived miRNA-mediated translational repression in Giardia.

Identification and role of functionally important motifs in the 970 loop of Escherichia coli 16S ribosomal RNA.

The 970 loop (helix 31) of Escherichia coli 16S ribosomal RNA contains two modified nucleotides, m(2)G966 and m(5)C967. Positions A964, A969, and C970 are conserved among the Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The nucleotides present at positions 965, 966, 967, 968, and 971, however, are only conserved and unique within each domain. All organisms contain a modified nucleoside at position 966, but the type of the modification is domain specific. Biochemical and structure studies have placed this loop near the P site and have shown it to be involved in the decoding process and in binding the antibiotic tetracycline. To identify the functional components of this ribosomal RNA hairpin, the eight nucleotides of the 970 loop of helix 31 were subjected to saturation mutagenesis and 107 unique functional mutants were isolated and analyzed. Nonrandom nucleotide distributions were observed at each mutated position among the functional isolates. Nucleotide identity at positions 966 and 969 significantly affects ribosome function. Ribosomes with single mutations of m(2)G966 or m(5)C967 produce more protein in vivo than do wild-type ribosomes. Overexpression of initiation factor 3 specifically restored wild-type levels of protein synthesis to the 966 and 967 mutants, suggesting that modification of these residues is important for initiation factor 3 binding and for the proper initiation of protein synthesis.

Combinatorial genetic technology for the development of new anti-infectives.

CONTEXT: We previously developed a novel technology known as instant evolution for high-throughput analysis of mutations in Escherichia coli ribosomal RNA. OBJECTIVE: To develop a genetic platform for the isolation of new classes of anti-infectives that are not susceptible to drug resistance based on the instant evolution system. DESIGN: Mutation libraries were constructed in the 16S rRNA gene of E coli and analyzed. In addition, the rRNA genes from a number of pathogenic bacteria were cloned and expressed in E coli. The 16S rRNA genes were incorporated into the instant-evolution system in E coli. SETTING: The Department of Biological Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, Mich. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Ribosome function was assayed by measuring the amount of green fluorescent protein produced by ribosomes containing mutant or foreign RNA in vivo. RESULTS: We have developed a new combinatorial genetic technology (CGT) platform that allows high-throughput in vivo isolation and analysis of rRNA mutations that might lead to drug resistance. This information is being used to develop anti-infectives that recognize the wild type and all viable mutants of the drug target. CGT also provides a novel mechanism for identifying new drug targets. CONCLUSIONS: Antimicrobials produced using CGT will provide new therapies for the treatment of infections caused by human pathogens that are resistant to current antibiotics. The new therapeutics will be less susceptible to de novo resistance because CGT identifies all mutations of the target that might lead to resistance during the earliest stages of the drug discovery process.

Functional studies of the 900 tetraloop capping helix 27 of 16S ribosomal RNA.

The 900 tetraloop (positions 898-901) of Escherichia coli 16S rRNA caps helix 27, which is involved in a conformational switch crucial for the decoding function of the ribosome. This tetraloop forms a GNRA motif involved in intramolecular RNA-RNA interactions with its receptor in helix 24 of 16S rRNA. It is involved also in an intersubunit bridge, via an interaction with helix 67 in domain IV of 23S rRNA. Using a specialized ribosome system and an instant-evolution procedure, the four nucleotides of this loop were randomized and 15 functional mutants were selected in vivo. Positions 899 and 900, responsible for most of the tetraloop/receptor interactions, were found to be the most critical for ribosome activity. Functional studies showed that mutations in the 900 tetraloop impair subunit association and decrease translational fidelity. Computer modeling of the mutations allows correlation of the effect of mutations with perturbations of the tetraloop/receptor interactions.