Life cycle assessment of municipal waste management options.

To date, landfilling remains the most common waste management practice in Greece in spite of enforced regulations aiming at increasing recycling, pre-selection of waste and energy and material recovery. In this study, selected alternative scenarios aiming at minimizing the unused material fraction to be disposed of in landfills are analyzed, using the life cycle assessment methodology. The methodology was applied in the case of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Athens and Thessaloniki, with a special focus on energy and material balance, including potential global and local scale airborne emissions. Results are given in the form of indices efficiency, effectiveness, environmental and public health impacts. Material flow accounting, gross energy requirement, emergy intensity, emission and release intensity and morbidity or mortality indicators have been used to support the comparative assessment. However, not all options are equally benign to the local environment and to the health of the local population, since both the former and the latter are still affected by non-negligible local emissions. With regard to public health impacts, adverse effects on respiratory health, congenital malformations, low birth weight and cancer incidence were estimated. A significant and not intuitive result is the fact that life cycle analysis produces different conclusions than a simple environmental impact assessment based only on estimated or measured emissions. Taking into account the overall life cycle of both the waste streams and of the technological systems and facilities envisaged alters the relative attractiveness of the solutions considered.

Toxicity bioassay of waste cooking oil-based biodiesel on marine microalgae.

The world biodiesel production is increasing at a rapid rate. Despite its perceived safety for the environment, more detailed toxicity studies are mandatory, especially in the field of aquatic toxicology. While considerable attention has been paid to biodiesel combustion emissions, the toxicity of biodiesel in the aquatic environment has been poorly understood. In our study, we used an algae culture growth-inhibition test (OECD 201) for the comparison of the toxicity of B100 (pure biodiesel), produced by methanol transesterification of waste cooking oil (yellow grease), B0 (petroleum diesel fuel) and B20 (diesel-biodiesel blended of 20% biodiesel and 80% petroleum diesel fuel by volume). Two marine diatoms Attheya ussuriensis and Chaetoceros muelleri, the red algae Porphyridium purpureum and Raphidophyte Heterosigma akashiwo were employed as the aquatic test organisms. A sample of biodiesel from waste cooking oil without dilution with petroleum diesel (B100) showed the highest level of toxicity for the microalgae A. ussuriensis, C. muelleri and H. akashiwo, compared to hexane, methanol, petroleum diesel (B0) and diluted sample (B20). The acute EC50 in the growth-inhibition test (96 h exposure) of B100 for the four species was in the range of 3.75-23.95 g/L whereas the chronic toxicity EC50 (7d exposure) was in the range of 0.42-16.09 g/L.

Morphological and chemical composition of particulate matter in buses exhaust.

This research article investigates the particulate matter originated from the exhaust emissions of 20 bus models, within the territory of Vladivostok, Russian Federation. The majority of evaluated buses (17 out of 20) had emissions of large particles with sizes greater than 400 µm, which account for more than 80% of all measured particles. The analysis of the elemental composition showed that the exhaust emissions contained Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg, Ni, Pb, and Zn, with the concentration of Zn prevailing in all samples by two to three orders of magnitude higher than the concentrations of the other elements.

Modeling of adipose/blood partition coefficient for environmental chemicals.

A Quantitative Structure Activity Relationship (QSAR) model was developed in order to predict the adipose/blood partition coefficient of environmental chemical compounds. The first step of QSAR modeling was the collection of inputs. Input data included the experimental values of adipose/blood partition coefficient and two sets of molecular descriptors for 67 organic chemical compounds; a) the descriptors from Linear Free Energy Relationship (LFER) and b) the PaDEL descriptors. The datasets were split to training and prediction set and were analysed using two statistical methods; Genetic Algorithm based Multiple Linear Regression (GA-MLR) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). The models with LFER and PaDEL descriptors, coupled with ANN, produced satisfying performance results. The fitting performance (R2) of the models, using LFER and PaDEL descriptors, was 0.94 and 0.96, respectively. The Applicability Domain (AD) of the models was assessed and then the models were applied to a large number of chemical compounds with unknown values of adipose/blood partition coefficient. In conclusion, the proposed models were checked for fitting, validity and applicability. It was demonstrated that they are stable, reliable and capable to predict the values of adipose/blood partition coefficient of "data poor" chemical compounds that fall within the applicability domain.

Monitoring of air pollution levels related to Charilaos Trikoupis Bridge.

Charilaos Trikoupis bridge is the longest cable bridge in Europe that connects Western Greece with the rest of the country. In this study, six air pollution monitoring campaigns (including major regulated air pollutants) were carried out from 2013 to 2015 at both sides of the bridge, located in the urban areas of Rio and Antirrio respectively. Pollution data were statistically analyzed and air quality was characterized using US and European air quality indices. From the overall campaign, it was found that air pollution levels were below the respective regulatory thresholds, but once at the site of Antirrio (26.4 and 52.2µg/m3 for PM2.5 and ΡΜ10, respectively) during the 2nd winter period. Daily average PM10 and PM2.5 levels from two monitoring sites were well correlated to gaseous pollutant (CO, NO, NO2, NOx and SO2) levels, meteorological parameters and factor scores from Positive Matrix Factorization during the 3-year period. Moreover, the elemental composition of PM10 and PM2.5 was used for source apportionment. That analysis revealed that major emission sources were sulfates, mineral dust, biomass burning, sea salt, traffic and shipping emissions for PM10 and PM2.5, for both Rio and Antirrio. Seasonal variation indicates that sulfates, mineral dust and traffic emissions increased during the warm season of the year, while biomass burning become the dominant during the cold season. Overall, the contribution of the Charilaos Trikoupis bridge to the vicinity air pollution is very low. This is the result of the relatively low daily traffic volume (~10,000 vehicles per day), the respective traffic fleet composition (~81% of the traffic fleet are private vehicles) and the speed limit (80km/h) which does not favor traffic emissions. In addition, the strong and frequent winds further contribute to the rapid dispersion of the emitted pollutants.

Assessing the impact of hazardous waste on children's health: The exposome paradigm.

Assessment of the health impacts related to hazardous waste is a major scientific challenge with multiple societal implications. Most studies related to associations between hazardous waste and public health do not provide established of mechanistic links between environmental exposure and disease burden, resulting in ineffective waste management options. The exposome concept comes to overhaul the nature vs. nurture paradigm and embraces a world of dynamic interactions between environmental exposures, endogenous exposures and genetic expression in humans. In this context, the exposome paradigm provides a novel tool for holistic hazardous waste management. Waste streams and the related contamination of environmental media are not viewed in isolation, but rather as components of the expotype, the vector of exposures an individual is exposed to over time. Thus, a multi-route and multi-pathway exposure estimation can be performed setting a realistic basis for integrated health risk assessment. Waste management practices are thus assessed not only regarding their technological edge and efficacy but also their effects on human health at the individual and community level, considering intra-subject variability in the affected population. The effectiveness of the exposome approach is demonstrated in the case of Athens, the capital of Greece, where the health effects associated to long term and short term exposure to two major waste management facilities (landfill and plastic recycling) are presented. Using the exposome analysis tools, we confirmed that proximity to a landfill is critical for children neurodevelopment. However, this effect is significantly modified by parameters such as parental education level, socioeconomic status and nutrition. Proximity to a plastics recycling plant does not pose significant threats under normal operating conditions; yet, in the case of an accidental fire, release of persistent carcinogenic compounds (dioxins and furans) even for a short period results in increased lifelong risk, especially for breast feeding neonates.

Benefits on public health from transport-related greenhouse gas mitigation policies in Southeastern European cities.

Climate change is a major environmental threat of our time. Cities have a significant impact on greenhouse gas emissions as most of the traffic, industry, commerce and more than 50% of world population is situated in urban areas. Southern Europe is a region that faces financial turmoil, enhanced migratory fluxes and climate change pressure. The case study of Thessaloniki is presented, one of the only two cities in Greece with established climate change action plans. The effects of feasible traffic policies in year 2020 are assessed and their potential health impact is compared to a business as usual scenario. Two types of measures are investigated: operation of underground rail in the city centre and changes in fleet composition. Potential co-benefits from reduced greenhouse gas emissions on public health by the year 2020 are computed utilizing state-of-the-art concentration response functions for PMx, NO2 and C6H6. Results show significant environmental health and monetary co-benefits when the city metro is coupled with appropriate changes in the traffic composition. Monetary savings due to avoided mortality or leukaemia incidence corresponding to the reduction in PM10, PM2.5, NO2 and C6H6 exposure will be 56.6, 45, 37.7 and 1.0 million Euros respectively. Promotion of 'green' transportation in the city (i.e. the wide use of electric vehicles), will provide monetary savings from the reduction in PM10, PM2.5, NO2 and C6H6 exposure up to 60.4, 49.1, 41.2 and 1.08 million Euros. Overall, it was shown that the respective GHG emission reduction policies resulted in clear co-benefits in terms of air quality improvement, public health protection and monetary loss mitigation.

The impact of multi-walled carbon nanotubes with different amount of metallic impurities on immunometabolic parameters in healthy volunteers.

The impact of two types of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) (12-14 nm) with different content of metallic impurities (purified and unpurified nanotubes) on peroxidation processes, the status of immune cells in healthy volunteers and gene expression combined to pathway analysis was studied in vitro. From the study it was shown that the main mechanism of action for both types of MWCNTs is induction of oxidative stress, the intensity of which is directly related to the amount of metallic impurities. Unpurified MWCNTs produced twice as high levels of oxidation than the purified CNTs inducing thus more intense mitochondrial dysfunction. All the above were also verified by gene expression analysis of 2 different human cellular cultures (lung epithelium and keratinoma cells) and the respective pathway analysis; modulation of genes activating the NFkB pathway is associated to inflammatory responses. This may cause a perturbation in the IL-6 signaling pathway in order to regulate inflammatory processes and compensate for apoptotic changes. A plausible hypothesis for the immunological effects observed in vivo, are considered as the result of the synergistic effect of systemic (mediated by cells of the routes of exposure) and local inflammation (blood cells).

Transport-related measures to mitigate climate change in Basel, Switzerland: A health-effectiveness comparison study.

BACKGROUND: Local strategies to reduce green-house gases (GHG) imply changes of non-climatic exposure patterns. OBJECTIVE: To assess the health impacts of locally relevant transport-related climate change policies in Basel, Switzerland. METHODS: We modelled change in mortality and morbidity for the year 2020 based on several locally relevant transport scenarios including all decided transport policies up to 2020, additional realistic and hypothesized traffic reductions, as well as ambitious diffusion levels of electric cars. The scenarios were compared to the reference condition in 2010 assumed as status quo. The changes in non-climatic population exposure included ambient air pollution, physical activity, and noise. As secondary outcome, changes in Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) were put into perspective with predicted changes of CO2 emissions and fuel consumption. RESULTS: Under the scenario that assumed a strict particle emissions standard in diesel cars and all planned transport measures, 3% of premature deaths could be prevented from projected PM2.5 exposure reduction. A traffic reduction scenario assuming more active trips provided only minor added health benefits for any of the changes in exposure considered. A hypothetical strong support to electric vehicles diffusion would have the largest health effectiveness given that the energy production in Basel comes from renewable sources. CONCLUSION: The planned local transport related GHG emission reduction policies in Basel are sensible for mitigating climate change and improving public health. In this context, the most effective policy remains increasing zero-emission vehicles.

Exposure analysis of accidental release of mercury from compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs).

Mercury release after breakage of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) has recently become an issue of public health concern, especially in the case of early life infants. Preliminary, screening type calculations have indicated that there is potential for increased intake of mercury vapor by inhalation after breakage of a CFL. Several experimental and computational studies have shown that, when modeling the breakage of a CFL, the room space must be segregated into different zones, according to the potential of mercury vapor to accumulate in them after accidental release. In this study, a detailed two-zone model that captures the physicochemical processes that govern mercury vapor formation and dispersion in the indoor environment was developed. The mercury fate model was coupled to a population exposure model that accounts for age and gender-related differences in time-activity patterns, as well as country differences in body weight and age distribution. The parameters above are used to determine the intake through inhalation (gas phase and particles) and non-dietary ingestion (settled dust) for each age, gender group and ethnicity. Results showed that the critical period for intake covers the first 4h after the CFL breaks and that room air temperature significantly affects the intake rate. Indoor air concentration of mercury vapor may exceed toxicological thresholds of concern such as the acute Reference Exposure Limit (REL) for mercury vapor set by the Environmental Protection Agency of California. Ingestion intake through hand-to-mouth behavior is significant for infants and toddlers, counting for about 20% of the overall intake. Simple risk reduction measures including increased indoor ventilation followed by careful clean-up of the accident site, may limit dramatically the estimated health risk.

Assessing health effects of environmental contaminants by molecular markers. Studies on methylmercury and polychlorinated biphenyls as examples of translational research in environmental toxicology.

Evaluating the human effects of combinations of neurotoxicants is extremely difficult. Parallel studies correlating exposure parameters and "surrogate" indicators of neural cell function may represent a promising strategy. Molecular markers such as cholinergic muscarinic receptors (MRs) and monoamine oxidase activity (MAO-B) are expressed not only in brain but also in peripheral blood cells. Measurements of MRs and MAO-B in these easily accessible matrices can provide valuable information on early sub-clinical effects of drugs and chemicals in the CNS. In this paper, examples of application of lymphocyte-MRs and platelet-MAO-B as surrogate markers of CNS function in humans are described. They include (i) neuroepidemiological studies examining 7-year-old members of a birth-cohort at the Faroe-Islands prenatally exposed to elevated concentrations of methylmercury (MeHg) and polychlorinated biphenyls; (ii) clinical investigations in a series of unmedicated children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The neurochemical markers were examined in association with exposure indicators and neuropsychological tests (Faroe Islands Study) or with specific disease symptoms (ADHD children). Studies of this type have produced valuable information on subclinical responses to low/moderate perinatal exposures to MeHg and/or PCBs, and in addition further supported the applicability of these biomarkers in children with subtle neuropsychiatric disorders. Additional studies investigated the ability of MeHg and/or PCBs to modify the expression of genes codifying for the MR subtypes in rat offspring cerebellum at distinct developmental stages. The results demonstrated persistent gender- and age-related differences in MR density and their associated gene expression pathways. Studies on pathways and metabolic networks involved in developmental toxicity may contribute to elucidate the mode of action of environmental pollutant mixtures and also considerably impact on the risk assessment process.

Spatially explicit multimedia fate models for pollutants in Europe: state of the art and perspectives.

A review by Hollander et al. (in preparation), discusses the relative potentials, advantages and shortcomings of spatial and non spatial models of chemical fate, highlighting that spatially explicit models may be needed for specific purposes. The present paper reviews the state of the art in spatially explicit chemical fate and transport modeling in Europe. We summarize the three main approaches currently adopted in spatially explicit modeling, namely (1) multiple box models, (2) numerical solutions of simultaneous advection-dispersion equations (ADE) in air, soil and water, and (3) the development of meta-models. As all three approaches experience limitations, we describe in further detail geographic information system (GIS)-based modeling as an alternative approach allowing a simple, yet spatially explicit description of chemical fate. We review the input data needed, and the options available for their retrieval at the European scale. We also discuss the importance of, and limitations in model evaluation. We observe that the high uncertainty in chemical emissions and physico-chemical behavior in the environment make realistic simulations difficult to obtain. Therefore we envisage a shift in model use from process simulation to hypothesis testing, in which explaining the discrepancies between observed and computed chemical concentrations in the environment takes importance over prediction per se. This shift may take advantage of using simple models in GIS with residual uses of complex models for detailed studies. It also calls for tighter joint interpretation of models and spatially distributed monitoring datasets, and more refined spatial representation of environmental drivers such as landscape and climate variables, and better emission estimates. In summary, we conclude that the problem is not "how to compute" (i.e. emphasis on numerical methods, spatial/temporal discretization, quantitative uncertainty and sensitivity analysis...) but "what to compute" (i.e. emphasis on spatial distribution of emissions, and the depiction of appropriate spatial patterns of environmental drivers).

Effects of water-soluble functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes examined by different cytotoxicity methods in human astrocyte D384 and lung A549 cells.

The widespread projected use of functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) makes it important to understand their potential harmful effects. Two cell culture systems, human A549 pneumocytes and D384 astrocytoma cells, were used to assess cytotoxicity of multi-walled CNTs (MWCNTs) with varying degrees of functionalization. Laboratory-made highly functionalized hf-MW-NH(2) and less functionalized CNTs (MW-COOH and MW-NH(2)) were tested in comparison with pristine MWCNTs, carbon black (CB) and silica (SiO(2)) by MTT assay and calcein/propidium iodide (PI) staining. Purity and physicochemical properties of the test nanomaterials were also determined. In both MTT and calcein/PI assays, highly functionalized CNTs (hf-MW-NH(2)) caused moderate loss of cell viability at doses >or=100 microg/ml being apparently less cytotoxic than SiO(2). In preparations treated with CB or the other nanotube types (pristine MWCNTs, MW-COOH and the less functionalized amino-substituted MW-NH(2)) the calcein/PI test indicated no loss of cell viability, whereas MTT assay apparently showed apparent cytotoxic response, occurring not dose-dependently at exceedingly low CNT concentrations (1 microg/ml). The latter nanomaterials were difficult to disperse showing higher aggregate ranges and tendency to agglomerate in bundle-like form in cell cultures. In contrast, hf-MW-NH(2) were water soluble and easily dispersible in medium; they presented lower aggregate size range as well as considerably lower length to diameter ratios and low tendency to form aggregates compared to the other CNTs tested. The MTT data may reflect a false positive cytotoxicity signal possibly due to non-specific CNT interaction with cell culture components. Thus, these properties obtained by chemical functionalization, such as water solubility, high dispersibility and low agglomeration tendency were relevant factors in modulating cytotoxicity. This study indicates that properties obtained by chemical functionalization, such as water solubility, high dispersibility and low agglomeration tendency are relevant factors in modulating cytotoxicity of CNTs.

Impact of European legislation on marketed pesticides--a view from the standpoint of health impact assessment studies.

The very significant impact of European legislation (Directive 91/414/EEC) on the authorization of plant protection products is reviewed herein, which has resulted in withdrawal of 704 active substances (AS) out of 889 assessed so far. The list of currently approved 276 AS includes 194 AS "existing" in the market before 1993 and 82 "new" AS introduced during the last 15 years. Results of toxicity characterization of the approved AS are also summarized, utilizing several well-known databases. Although significant data gaps exist for a rather large part of the approved AS, it is found that 84 AS are positive for at least one health effect (after chronic and/or acute exposure) including carcinogenicity, reproductive and neuro-developmental disorders, as well as endocrine disruption. The toxicity characterization results of this study are compared to those of recent assessments by other organizations (KemI, the Swedish Chemicals Agency, and the Pesticide Safety Directorate of the UK), where interpretation and use is made of AS "cut-off" criteria foreseen in new EU legislation. These studies report a comparatively smaller AS number with positive toxicity characterization. The possibility of some additional AS withdrawal in the near future, combined with the rather small rate of new AS introduction (approx. 5 per year) suggest that the list of approved AS over the next 10-15 years may not change very drastically. Consideration of the above trends is necessary and instructive in evaluating results of existing health impact assessment (HIA) studies, as well as in planning new ones. Due to the very drastic change in the number and type of marketed AS, that took place within the past 8-9years, it is suggested that new HIA studies (based on epidemiological data after year 2000) should focus on a rather short time frame and, therefore, on appropriate cohort groups, e.g. young children. For the same reason, results of epidemiological studies of the past (involving banned AS) should be carefully interpreted and used with caution.

Meso-scale life-cycle impact assessment of novel technology policies: the case of renewable energy.

Assessing the environmental risk of novel technological systems and of the European Union (EU) policies supporting them and regulating their implementation requires good understanding of (i) the pressure on the environment posed by the large-scale use of new technology, and (ii) the vulnerability of the receptor of this pressure. Generic life-cycle assessments (LCAs) provide exhaustive accounting of environmental pressure, yet they do not take into account the vulnerability of the receiving ecosystem. Generic studies of technology externalities fail to produce conclusions on the impacts in a certain area of the systems envisaged due to lack of site-specific information. The combined use of generic (LCA) and spatially referenced data offers new opportunities for comprehensively analysing the environmental impact of novel technologies. A novel information fusion methodology is suggested. Example applications are presented herein focusing on the evaluation of renewable energy technologies as an example of the implementation of meso-scale LCA for integrated environmental risk assessment of EU technology policies.