Acousto-Optic Catheter Tracking Sensor for Interventional MRI Procedures.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this paper is to introduce an acousto-optic optical fiber sensor for tracking catheter position during interventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to overcome RF induced heating of active markers. METHODS: The sensor uses a miniature coil coupled to a piezoelectric transducer, which is in turn mechanically connected to an optical fiber. The piezoelectric transducer converts the RF signal to acoustic waves in the optical fiber over a region including a fiber Bragg grating (FBG). The elastic waves in the fiber modulates the FBG geometry and hence the reflected light in the optical fiber. Since the coil is much smaller than the RF wavelength and the signal is transmitted on the dielectric optical fiber, the sensor effectively reduces RF induced heating risk. Proof of concept prototypes of the sensor are implemented using commercially available piezoelectric transducers and optical fibers with FBGs. The prototypes are characterized in a 1.5 T MRI system in comparison with an active tracking marker. RESULTS: Acousto-optical sensor shows linear response with flip angle and it can be used to detect signals from multiple coils for potential orientation detection. It has been successfully used to detect the position of a tacking coil in phantom in an imaging experiment. CONCLUSION: Acousto-optical sensing is demonstrated for tracking catheters during interventional MRI. Real-time operation of the sensor requires sensitivity improvements like using a narrow band FBG. SIGNIFICANCE: Acousto-optics provides a compact solution to sense RF signals in MRI with dielectric transmission lines.

A capacitive ultrasonic transducer based on parametric resonance.

A capacitive ultrasonic transducer based on a parametric resonator structure is described and experimentally demonstrated. The transducer structure, which we call capacitive parametric ultrasonic transducer (CPUT), uses a parallel plate capacitor with a movable membrane as part of a degenerate parametric series RLC resonator circuit with a resonance frequency of fo. When the capacitor plate is driven with an incident harmonic ultrasonic wave at the pump frequency of 2fo with sufficient amplitude, the RLC circuit becomes unstable and ultrasonic energy can be efficiently converted to an electrical signal at fo frequency in the RLC circuit. An important characteristic of the CPUT is that unlike other electrostatic transducers, it does not require DC bias or permanent charging to be used as a receiver. We describe the operation of the CPUT using an analytical model and numerical simulations, which shows drive amplitude dependent operation regimes including parametric resonance when a certain threshold is exceeded. We verify these predictions by experiments with a micromachined membrane based capacitor structure in immersion where ultrasonic waves incident at 4.28 MHz parametrically drive a signal with significant amplitude in the 2.14 MHz RLC circuit. With its unique features, the CPUT can be particularly advantageous for applications such as wireless power transfer for biomedical implants and acoustic sensing.

Phase and Amplitude Modulation Methods for Nonlinear Ultrasound Imaging With CMUTs.

Conventional amplitude and phase modulated pulse sequences for selective imaging of nonlinear tissue and ultrasound contrast agents are designed for piezoelectric transducers that behave linearly. Inherent nonlinearity of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs), especially during large-signal operation, renders these methods inapplicable. In this paper, we present different pulse sequences for nonlinear imaging that are valid for small- and large-signal CMUT operations. For small-signal operation, two-pulse amplitude and phase modulation methods for microbubble and tissue harmonic imaging are presented, where CMUT nonlinearity is compensated via subharmonic excitation. In the large-signal regime, using a nonlinear model, we first show that there is a simple linear relationship between the phases of each harmonic distortion component generated and the input drive signal. Based on this observation, we demonstrate a pulse sequence using N+1 consecutive phase modulated transmit events to extract N harmonics of the nonlinear contrast agent echo content uncorrupted by CMUT nonlinearity. The proposed methods assume no apriori information about the transducer and, therefore, are applicable to any CMUT. The phase modulation method is also valid for piezoelectric transducers and systems with nonlinearities described by Taylor series where the same phase relationship between the input signal and the harmonic content is valid. The proof of principle experiments using a commercial contrast agent validates the phase modulated pulse sequences for CMUTs, operating in a highly nonlinear collapse-snapback mode and for piezoelectric transducers.

A nonlinear lumped model for ultrasound systems using CMUT arrays.

We present a nonlinear lumped model that predicts the electrical input-output behavior of an ultrasonic system using CMUTs with arbitrary array/membrane/electrode geometry in different transmit-receive configurations and drive signals. The receive-only operation, where the electrical output signal of the CMUT array in response to incident pressure field is calculated, is included by modifying the boundary elementbased vibroacoustic formulation for a CMUT array in rigid baffle. Along with the accurate large signal transmit model, this formulation covers pitch-catch and pulse-echo operation when transmit and receive signals can be separated in time. In cases when this separation is not valid, such as CMUTs used in continuous wave transmit-receive mode, pulse-echo mode with a nearby hard or soft wall or in a bounded space such as in a microfluidic channel, an efficient formulation based on the method of images is used. Some of these particular applications and the overall modeling approach have been validated through comparison with finite element analysis on specific examples including CMUTs with multiple electrodes. To further demonstrate the capability of the model for imaging applications, the two-way response of a partial dual-ring intravascular ultrasound array is simulated using a parallel computing cluster, where the output currents of individual array elements are calculated for given input pulse and compared with experimental results. With its versatility, the presented model can be a useful tool for rapid iterative CMUT-based system design and simulation for a broad range of ultrasonic applications.

Single-chip CMUT-on-CMOS front-end system for real-time volumetric IVUS and ICE imaging.

Intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) and intracardiac echography (ICE) catheters with real-time volumetric ultrasound imaging capability can provide unique benefits to many interventional procedures used in the diagnosis and treatment of coronary and structural heart diseases. Integration of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) arrays with front-end electronics in single-chip configuration allows for implementation of such catheter probes with reduced interconnect complexity, miniaturization, and high mechanical flexibility. We implemented a single-chip forward-looking (FL) ultrasound imaging system by fabricating a 1.4-mm-diameter dual-ring CMUT array using CMUT-on-CMOS technology on a front-end IC implemented in 0.35-µm CMOS process. The dual-ring array has 56 transmit elements and 48 receive elements on two separate concentric annular rings. The IC incorporates a 25-V pulser for each transmitter and a low-noise capacitive transimpedance amplifier (TIA) for each receiver, along with digital control and smart power management. The final shape of the silicon chip is a 1.5-mm-diameter donut with a 430-µm center hole for a guide wire. The overall front-end system requires only 13 external connections and provides 4 parallel RF outputs while consuming an average power of 20 mW. We measured RF A-scans from the integrated single- chip array which show full functionality at 20.1 MHz with 43% fractional bandwidth. We also tested and demonstrated the image quality of the system on a wire phantom and an ex vivo chicken heart sample. The measured axial and lateral point resolutions are 92 µm and 251 µm, respectively. We successfully acquired volumetric imaging data from the ex vivo chicken heart at 60 frames per second without any signal averaging. These demonstrative results indicate that single-chip CMUT-on-CMOS systems have the potential to produce realtime volumetric images with image quality and speed suitable for catheter-based clinical applications.

A large-signal model for CMUT arrays with arbitrary membrane geometry operating in non-collapsed mode.

A large-signal, transient model has been developed to predict the output characteristics of a CMUT array operated in the non-collapse mode. The model is based on separation of the nonlinear electrostatic voltage-to-force relation and the linear acoustic array response. For modeling of linear acoustic radiation and crosstalk effects, the boundary element method is used. The stiffness matrix in the vibroacoustics calculations is obtained using static finite element analysis of a single membrane which can have arbitrary geometry and boundary conditions. A lumped modeling approach is used to reduce the order of the system for modeling the transient nonlinear electrostatic actuation. To accurately capture the dynamics of the non-uniform electrostatic force distribution over the CMUT electrode during large deflections, the membrane electrode is divided into patches shaped to match higher order membrane modes, each introducing a variable to the system model. This reduced order nonlinear lumped model is solved in the time domain using commercial software. The model has two linear blocks to calculate the displacement profile of the electrode patches and the output pressure for a given force distribution over the array. The force-to-array-displacement block uses the linear acoustic model, and the Rayleigh integral is evaluated to calculate the pressure at any field point. Using the model, the time-domain transmitted pressure can be simulated for different large drive signal configurations. The acoustic model is verified by comparison to harmonic FEA in vacuum and fluid for high- and low-aspect-ratio membranes as well as mass-loaded membranes. The overall software model is verified by comparison to transient 3-D finite element analysis and experimental results for different large drive signals, and an example for a phased array simulation is given.

Ultrasound imaging of oxidative stress in vivo with chemically-generated gas microbubbles.

Ultrasound contrast agents (UCAs) have tremendous potential for in vivo molecular imaging because of their high sensitivity. However, the diagnostic potential of UCAs has been difficult to exploit because current UCAs are based on pre-formed microbubbles, which can only detect cell surface receptors. Here, we demonstrate that chemical reactions that generate gas forming molecules can be used to perform molecular imaging by ultrasound in vivo. This new approach was demonstrated by imaging reactive oxygen species in vivo with allylhydrazine, a liquid compound that is converted into nitrogen and propylene gas after reacting with radical oxidants. We demonstrate that allylhydrazine encapsulated within liposomes can detect a 10 micromolar concentration of radical oxidants by ultrasound, and can image oxidative stress in mice, induced by lipopolysaccharide, using a clinical ultrasound system. We anticipate numerous applications of chemically-generated microbubbles for molecular imaging by ultrasound, given ultrasound's ability to detect small increments above the gas saturation limit, its spatial resolution and widespread clinical use.

Harmonic reduction in capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers by gap feedback linearization.

The nonlinear relationship between the electrical input signal and electrostatic force acting on the capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) membrane limits its harmonic imaging performance. Several input shaping methods were proposed to compensate for the nonlinearity originating from the electrostatic force's dependence on the square of the applied voltage. Here, we analyze harmonic generation in CMUTs with a time-domain model. The model explains the basis of the input shaping methods and suggests that the nonlinearity resulting from gap dependence of the electrostatic force is also significant. It also suggests that the harmonic distortion in the output pressure can be eliminated by subharmonic ac-only excitation of the CMUT in addition to scaling the input voltage with the instantaneous gap. This gap feedback configuration can be approximated by the simple addition of a series impedance to the CMUT capacitance. We analyze several types of series impedance feedback topologies for gap feedback linearization. We show that for subharmonic ac excitation, although resistive and capacitive impedances result in a trade-off between input voltage and harmonic distortion for a desired pressure output, harmonic generation can be suppressed while increasing the Pa/V transmit sensitivity for proper series inductance and resistance feedback. We experimentally demonstrate the feedback method by reducing harmonic generation by 10 dB for the same output pressure at the fundamental frequency by using a simple series resistor feedback with a CMUT operating at a center frequency of 3 MHz. The proposed methods also allow for utilization of the full CMUT gap for transmit operation and, hence, should be useful in high-intensity ultrasonic applications in addition to harmonic imaging.

Volumetric imaging using single chip integrated CMUT-on-CMOS IVUS array.

An intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) catheter that can provide forward viewing volumetric ultrasound images would be an invaluable clinical tool for guiding interventions. Single chip integration of front-end electronics with capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducers (CMUTs) is highly desirable to reduce the interconnection complexity and enable miniaturization in IVUS catheters. For this purpose we use the monolithic CMUT-on-CMOS integration where CMUTs are fabricated directly on top of pre-processed CMOS wafers. This minimizes parasitic capacitances associated with connection lines. We have recently implemented a system design including all the required electronics using 0.35-µm CMOS process integrated with a 1.4-mm diameter CMUT array. In this study, we present the experimental volumetric imaging results from an ex-vivo chicken heart phantom. The imaging results demonstrate that the single-chip forward looking IVUS (FL-IVUS) system with monolithically integrated electronics has potential to visualize the front view of coronary arteries.

Monolithic CMUT-on-CMOS integration for intravascular ultrasound applications.

One of the most important promises of capacitive micromachined ultrasonic transducer (CMUT) technology is integration with electronics. This approach is required to minimize the parasitic capacitances in the receive mode, especially in catheter-based volumetric imaging arrays, for which the elements must be small. Furthermore, optimization of the available silicon area and minimized number of connections occurs when the CMUTs are fabricated directly above the associated electronics. Here, we describe successful fabrication and performance evaluation of CMUT arrays for intravascular imaging on custom-designed CMOS receiver electronics from a commercial IC foundry. The CMUT-on-CMOS process starts with surface isolation and mechanical planarization of the CMOS electronics to reduce topography. The rest of the CMUT fabrication is achieved by modifying a low-temperature micromachining process through the addition of a single mask and developing a dry etching step to produce sloped sidewalls for simple and reliable CMUT-to-CMOS interconnection. This CMUT-to-CMOS interconnect method reduced the parasitic capacitance by a factor of 200 when compared with a standard wire-bonding method. Characterization experiments indicate that the CMUT-on-CMOS elements are uniform in frequency response and are similar to CMUTs simultaneously fabricated on standard silicon wafers without electronics integration. Ex- periments on a 1.6-mm-diameter dual-ring CMUT array with a center frequency of 15 MHz show that both the CMUTs and the integrated CMOS electronics are fully functional. The SNR measurements indicate that the performance is adequate for imaging chronic total occlusions located 1 cm from the CMUT array.