Gradient method for accurate affinity determinations.

The value of the affinity constants (kd, ka, and KD) that are determined by label free interaction analysis methods are strongly affected by the ligand density at the sensor surface [1]. This paper outlines a new SPR-imaging method that applies a ligand density gradient enabling the analyte response to be extrapolated to Rmax = 0 µRIU. The mass transport limited region is used to determine the analyte concentration. Cumbersome optimization procedures for tuning the ligand density is prevented and surface dependent effects as rebinding, strong biphasic behavior etcetera are minimized. The method can be fully automated for e.g. accurate determination of the quality of antibodies from commercial sources.

Kinetic characterization of SPR-based biomarker assays enables quality control, calibration free measurements and robust optimization for clinical application.

Biomarker measurements are essential for the early diagnosis of complex diseases. However, many current biomarker assays lack sensitivity and multiplexing capacity, work in a narrow detection range and importantly lack real time quality control opportunities, which hampers clinical translation. In this paper, we demonstrate a toolbox to kinetically characterize a biomarker measurement assay using Surface Plasmon Resonance imaging (SPRi) with ample opportunities for real time quality control by exploiting quantitative descriptions of the various biomolecular interactions. We show an accurate prediction of SPRi measurements at both low and high concentrations of various analytes with deviations <5% between actual measurements and predicted measurement. The biphasic binding sites model was accurate for fitting the experimental curves and enables optimal detection of heterophilic antibodies, cross-reactivity, spotting irregularities and/or other confounders. The toolbox can also be used to create a (simulated) calibration curve, enabling calibration-free measurements with good recovery, it allows for easy assay optimizations, and could help bridge the gap to bring new biomarker assays to the clinic.

High throughput surface plasmon resonance imaging method for clinical detection of presence and strength of binding of IgM, IgG and IgA antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 during CoViD-19 infection.

Surface Plasmon Resonance imaging (SPRi) was used to determine the presence and strength of binding of IgG, IgM and IgA against the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 in sera of 102 CoViD-19 and non-CoViD-19 patients. The SPRi assay simultaneously measures the antibody isotype levels and the strength of binding to the RBD of ultimate 384 patient samples in one run. It turns out that during the course of the disease, the IgG levels and strength of binding increased while generally the IgM and IgA levels go down. Recovered patients all show high strength of binding of the IgG type to the RBD protein. The anti-RBD immunoglobulins SPRi assay provides additional insights in the immune status of patients recovering from CoViD-19. This new high throughput method can be applied for the assessment of the quality of the immune reaction of healthy individuals to SARS-CoV-2 and its mutants in vaccination programs.•Surface Plasmon Resonance imaging is an unprecedented technology for high throughput screening of antibody profiling of CoViD19 patients.•Fingerprinting of isotypes IgM, IgG and IgA can be performed for 384 patients in one run.•An affinity maturation effect was shown for patients recovering from CoViD19.

Presence and strength of binding of IgM, IgG and IgA antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 during CoViD-19 infection.

Surface Plasmon Resonance imaging (SPRi) was used to determine the presence and strength of binding of IgG, IgM and IgA against the Receptor Binding Domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 in sera of 119 CoViD-19 patients. The SPRi assay measures the antibody isotype levels and the strength of binding to the RBD of ultimate 384 patient samples in one run. It turns out that during the course of the disease, the IgG levels and strength of binding increased while generally the IgM and IgA levels go down. Recovered patients all show high strength of binding of the IgG type to the RBD protein. The anti-RBD immunoglobulins SPRi assay provides additional insights in the immune status of patients recovering from CoViD-19 and this new method can furthermore be applied for the assessment of the quality of the immune reaction of healthy individuals to SARS-CoV-2 in vaccination programs.

IgG Subclass Determines Suppression Versus Enhancement of Humoral Alloimmunity to Kell RBC Antigens in Mice.

It has long been appreciated that immunoglobulins are not just the effector endpoint of humoral immunity, but rather have a complex role in regulating antibody responses themselves. Donor derived anti-RhD IgG has been used for over 50 years as an immunoprophylactic to prevent maternal alloimmunization to RhD. Although anti-RhD has dramatically decreased rates of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn (for the RhD alloantigen), anti-RhD also fails in some cases, and can even paradoxically enhance immune responses in some circumstances. Attempts to generate a monoclonal anti-RhD have largely failed, with some monoclonals suppressing less than donor derived anti-RhD and others enhancing immunity. These difficulties likely result, in part, because the mechanism of anti-RhD remains unclear. However, substantial evidence exists to reject the common explanations of simple clearance of RhD + RBCs or masking of antigen. Donor derived anti-RhD is a mixture of 4 different IgG subtypes. To the best of our knowledge an analysis of the role different IgG subtypes play in immunoregulation has not been carried out; and, only IgG1 and IgG3 have been tested as monoclonals. Multiple attempts to elicit alloimmune responses to human RhD epitopes in mice have failed. To circumvent this limitation, we utilize a tractable animal model of RBC alloimmunization using the human Kell glycoprotein as an antigen to test the effect of IgG subtype on immunoregulation by antibodies to RBC alloantigens. We report that the ability of an anti-RBC IgG to enhance, suppress (at the level of IgM responses), or have no effect is a function of the IgG subclass in this model system.

Multiplex Label Free Characterization of Cancer Cell Lines Using Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging.

Rapid multiplex cell surface marker analysis can expedite investigations in which large number of antigens need to be analyzed. Simultaneous analysis of multiple surface antigens at the same level of sensitivity is however limited in the current golden standard analysis method, flow cytometry. In this paper we introduce a surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi)-based technique for 44-plex parameter analysis using a single sample, in less than 20 min. We analyzed the expression on cells from five different cancer cell lines by SPRi on a 44-plex antibody array including 4 negative controls and compared the output with flow cytometry. The combined correlation of the markers that showed expression by flow cytometry was 0.76. The results demonstrate as a proof of principle that SPRi can be applied for rapid semi-quantitative multiplex cell surface marker analysis.

A microwell array platform to print and measure biomolecules produced by single cells.

Here we describe a combined method to monitor the secretion of molecules produced by single cells, followed by a method to isolate the individual cells that produced these molecules. The method is based on a self-sorting microwell chip that is connected to an activated membrane that collects the produced molecules. The produced molecules are printed by diffusion in small spots onto the membrane. The location of the printed spots can be correlated to the microwell number and the cell that produced these molecules. To demonstrate the method, we used the EpCAM antibody producing hybridoma cell line VU1D9 and a genetically engineered CHO cell-line producing Her2. VU1D9 cells produced 4.6 ± 5.6 pg (mean ± SD) of EpCAM antibody per 24 h and CHO cells 6.5 ± 8.2 pg per 24 h of Herceptin antibody.

Trends in SPR Cytometry: Advances in Label-Free Detection of Cell Parameters.

SPR cytometry entails the measurement of parameters from intact cells using the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) phenomenon. Specific real-time and label-free binding of living cells to sensor surfaces has been made possible through the availability of SPR imaging (SPRi) instruments and researchers have started to explore its potential in the last decade. Here we will discuss the mechanisms of detection and additionally describe the problems and issues of mammalian cells in SPR biosensing, both from our own experience and with information from the literature. Finally, we build on the knowledge and applications that has already materialized in this field to give a forecast of some exciting applications for SPRi cytometry.

Nanoparticle Enhancement Cascade for Sensitive Multiplex Measurements of Biomarkers in Complex Fluids with Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging.

There is a large unmet need for reliable biomarker measurement systems for clinical application. Such systems should meet challenging requirements for large scale use, including a large dynamic detection range, multiplexing capacity, and both high specificity and sensitivity. More importantly, these requirements need to apply to complex biological samples, which require extensive quality control. In this paper, we present the development of an enhancement detection cascade for surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi). The cascade applies an antibody sandwich assay, followed by neutravidin and a gold nanoparticle enhancement for quantitative biomarker measurements in small volumes of complex fluids. We present a feasibility study both in simple buffers and in spiked equine synovial fluid with four cytokines, IL-1ß, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α. Our enhancement cascade leads to an antibody dependent improvement in sensitivity up to 40 000 times, resulting in a limit of detection as low as 50 fg/mL and a dynamic detection range of more than 7 logs. Additionally, measurements at these low concentrations are highly reliable with intra- and interassay CVs between 2% and 20%. We subsequently showed this assay is suitable for multiplex measurements with good specificity and limited cross-reactivity. Moreover, we demonstrated robust detection of IL-6 and IL-1ß in spiked undiluted equine synovial fluid with small variation compared to buffer controls. In addition, the availability of real time measurements provides extensive quality control opportunities, essential for clinical applications. Therefore, we consider this method is suitable for broad application in SPRi for multiplex biomarker detection in both research and clinical settings.

Rapid screening of IgG quality attributes - effects on Fc receptor binding.

The interactions of therapeutic antibodies with fragment crystallizable γ (Fcγ) receptors and neonatal Fc receptors (FcRn) are measured in vitro as indicators of antibody functional performance. Antibodies are anchored to immune cells through the Fc tail, and these interactions are important for the efficacy and safety of therapeutic antibodies. High-throughput binding studies on each of the human Fcγ receptor classes (FcγRI, FcγRIIa, FcγRIIb, FcγRIIIa, and FcγRIIIb) as well as FcRn have been developed and performed with human IgG after stress-induced modifications to identify potential impact in vivo. Interestingly, we found that asparagine deamidation (D-N) reduced the binding of IgG to the low-affinity Fcγ receptors (FcγRIIa, FcγRIIb, FcγRIIIa, and FcγRIIIb), while FcγRI and FcRn binding was not impacted. Deglycosylation completely inhibited binding to all Fcγ receptors, but showed no impact on binding to FcRn. On the other hand, afucosylation only impacted binding to FcγRIIIa and FcγRIIIb. Methionine oxidation at levels below 7%, multiple freeze/thaw cycles and short-term thermal/shake stress did not influence binding to any of the Fc receptors. The presence of high molecular weight species, or aggregates, disturbed measurements in these binding assays; up to 5% of aggregates in IgG samples changed the binding and kinetics to each of the Fc receptors. Overall, the screening assays described in this manuscript prove that rapid and multiplexed binding assays may be a valuable tool for lead optimization, process development, in-process controls, and biosimilarity assessment of IgGs during development and manufacturing of therapeutic IgGs.

Surface Plasmon Resonance is an Analytically Sensitive Method for Antigen Profiling of Extracellular Vesicles.

BACKGROUND: Identification, enumeration, and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) are hampered by the small size of EVs, a low refractive index, and low numbers of antigens on their surface. METHODS: We investigated the potential of a 48-multiplex surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) system to perform EV phenotyping. Antigen surface density of 11 antigens was measured on the human breast cancer cell lines HS578T, MCF7, and SKBR3 and their EVs by use of both SPRi and the widely used flow cytometry (FCM). RESULTS: For cells, the SPRi and FCM signals for antigen exposure correlated (RHS578T cells2 = 0.66, RMCF7 cells2 = 0.78, RSKBR3 cells2 = 0.60). With regard to EVs, SPRi detected 31 out of 33 tested antibody-EV pairs, whereas our flow cytometer detected 5 antibody-EV pairs because of high blank and isotype control signals. For HS578T-derived EVs, the SPRi and FCM signals correlated (R2HS578T EVs = 0.98). However, on MCF7- and SKBR3-derived EVs, insufficient antigens were detected by our flow cytometer. To confirm that the SPRi responses correlated with mean antigen density on EVs, the SPRi responses of EVs were correlated with antigen density on parental cells as measured by FCM (RHS578T2 = 0.77, RMCF72 = 0.49, RSKBR32 = 0.52). CONCLUSIONS: SPRi responses correlate with mean antigen density. Moreover, SPRi detects lower antigen-exposure levels than FCM because SPRi measures an ensemble of EVs binding to the sensor surface, whereas FCM detects antigens of single EV.

Rapid Buffer and Ligand Screening for Affinity Chromatography by Multiplexed Surface Plasmon Resonance Imaging.

Protein purifications are often based on the principle of affinity chromatography, where the protein of interest selectively binds to an immobilized ligand. The development of affinity purification requires selecting proper wash and elution conditions. In recent years, miniaturization of the purification process is applied to speed up the development (e.g., microtiterplates, robocolumns). The application of surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) as a tool to simultaneously screen many buffer conditions for wash and elution steps in an affinity-based purification process is studied. Additionally, the protein A ligand stability after exposure to harsh cleaning conditions often limits the reuse of resins and is determined at lab scale. The SPRi technology to screen ligand life-time with respect to alkali stability is used. It is also demonstrated that SPRi can successfully be applied in screening experiments for process developments in a miniaturized approach. The amount of resin, protein and buffer in these studies is reduced 30-300-fold compared to 1 mL column scale, and approximately 10-1000-fold compared to filter plate experiments. The overall development time can be decreased from several months towards days. The multiplexed SPRi can be applied in screening affinity chromatography conditions in early stage development for ligand development and recombinant protein production.

Modeling single cell antibody excretion on a biosensor.

We simulated, using Comsol Multiphysics, the excretion of antibodies by single hybridoma cells and their subsequent binding on a surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) sensor. The purpose was to confirm that SPRi is suitable to accurately quantify antibody (anti-EpCAM) excretion. The model showed that antibody loss by diffusion away from the sensor was less than 1%. Unexpectedly, more than 99% of the excreted antibodies were captured on the sensor. These data prove the remarkable phenomenon that the SPRi output of cellular antibody excretion and its subsequent binding, performed under the conditions described here, is directly usable for quantification of single cell antibody production rates.

Interpolation method for accurate affinity ranking of arrayed ligand-analyte interactions.

The values of the affinity constants (kd, ka, and KD) that are determined by label-free interaction analysis methods are affected by the ligand density. This article outlines a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) imaging method that yields high-throughput globally fitted affinity ranking values using a 96-plex array. A kinetic titration experiment without a regeneration step has been applied for various coupled antibodies binding to a single antigen. Globally fitted rate (kd and ka) and dissociation equilibrium (KD) constants for various ligand densities and analyte concentrations are exponentially interpolated to the KD at Rmax = 100 RU response level (KD(R100)).

Quantification of antibody production of individual hybridoma cells by surface plasmon resonance imaging.

Surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) is most frequently used for the label-free measurement of biomolecular interactions. Here we explore the potential of SPRi to measure antibody production of individual hybridoma cells. As a model system, cells from a hybridoma, producing monoclonal antibodies recognizing epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), were used. Recombinant human EpCAM protein was immobilized on an SPR sensor and hybridoma cells were introduced into an IBIS MX96 SPR imager and the SPRi response was followed for 10h. SPRi responses were detected on the spots of the sensor only where ligands of the produced antibody were present. By measuring the SPRi signals on individual cells the antibody production of the individual cells was measured and production rates were calculated. For 53 single EpCAM hybridoma cells the production ranged from 0.16 to 11.95 pg (mean 2.96p g per cell, SD 2.51) over a period of 10 h. Antibody excretion per cell per hour ranged from 0.02 to 1.19 pg (mean 0.30, SD 0.25). Here we demonstrate for the first time that antibody production of individual cells can be measured and quantified by SPRi, opening a new avenue for measuring excretion products of individual cells.

Platinum(II) as bifunctional linker in antibody-drug conjugate formation: coupling of a 4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole fluorophore to trastuzumab as a model.

The potential of platinum(II) as a bifunctional linker in the coordination of small molecules, such as imaging agents or (cytotoxic) drugs, to monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was investigated with a 4-nitrobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole (NBD) fluorophore and trastuzumab (Herceptin™) as a model antibody. The effect of ligand and reaction conditions on conjugation efficiency was explored for [Pt(en)(L-NBD)Cl](NO3 ) (en=ethylenediamine), with L=N-heteroaromatic, N-alkyl amine, or thioether. Conjugation proceeded most efficiently at pH 8.0 in the presence of NaClO4 or Na2 SO4 in tricine or HEPES buffer. Reaction of N-coordinated complexes (20 equiv) with trastuzumab at 37 °C for 2 h, followed by removal of weakly bound complexes with excess thiourea, afforded conjugates with an NBD/mAb ratio of 1.5-2.9 that were stable in phosphate-buffered saline at room temperature for at least 48 h. In contrast, thioether-coordinated complexes afforded unstable conjugates. Finally, surface plasmon resonance analysis showed no loss in binding affinity of trastuzumab after conjugation.

C-reactive protein enhances IgG-mediated phagocyte responses and thrombocytopenia.

Immune-mediated platelet destruction is most frequently caused by allo- or autoantibodies via Fcγ receptor-dependent phagocytosis. Disease severity can be predicted neither by antibody isotype nor by titer, indicating that other factors play a role. Here we show that the acute phase protein C-reactive protein (CRP), a ligand for Fc receptors on phagocytes, enhances antibody-mediated platelet destruction by human phagocytes in vitro and in vivo in mice. Without antiplatelet antibodies, CRP was found to be inert toward platelets, but it bound to phosphorylcholine exposed after oxidation triggered by antiplatelet antibodies, thereby enhancing platelet phagocytosis. CRP levels were significantly elevated in patients with allo- and autoantibody-mediated thrombocytopenias compared with healthy controls. Within a week, intravenous immunoglobulin treatment in children with newly diagnosed immune thrombocytopenia led to significant decrease of CRP levels, increased platelet numbers, and clinically decreased bleeding severity. Furthermore, the higher the level of CRP at diagnosis, the longer it took before stable platelet counts were reached. These data suggest that CRP amplifies antibody-mediated platelet destruction and may in part explain the aggravation of thrombocytopenia on infections. Hence, targeting CRP could offer new therapeutic opportunities for these patients.

Analysis of cell surface antigens by Surface Plasmon Resonance imaging.

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is most commonly used to measure bio-molecular interactions. SPR is used significantly less frequent for measuring whole cell interactions. Here we introduce a method to measure whole cells label free using the specific binding of cell surface antigens expressed on the surface of cancer cells and specific ligands deposited on sensor chips using an IBIS MX96 SPR imager (SPRi). As a model system, cells from the breast cancer cell line HS578T, SKBR3 and MCF7 were used. SPRi responses to Epithelial Cell Adhesion Molecule (EpCAM) antibody and other ligands coated on the sensor chips were measured. SPR curves show a response attributable to the sedimentation of the cells and a specific binding response on top of the initial response, the magnitude of which is dependent on the ligand density and the cell type used. Comparison of SPRi with flow cytometry showed similar EpCAM expression on MCF7, SKBR3 and HS578T cells.

Label-free cell profiling.

A surface plasmon resonance (SPR) array imaging method is outlined for label-free cell profiling. Red blood cells (RBCs) were injected into a flow chamber on top of a spotted sensor surface. Spots contained antibodies to various RBC membrane antigens. A typical sensorgram showed an initial response corresponding to cell sedimentation (S) followed by a specific upward response (T) corresponding to specific binding of cells during a critical wash step. The full analysis cycle for RBC profiling was less than 6 min. The sensor surface could be regenerated at least 100 times, allowing the determination of a cell surface antigen profile of RBCs.

Method for estimating the single molecular affinity.

Affinity constants (k(d), k(a), and K(D)) can be determined by methods that apply immobilized ligands such as immunoassays and label-free biosensor technologies. This article outlines a new surface plasmon resonance (SPR) array imaging method that yields affinity constants that can be considered as the best estimate of the affinity constant for single biomolecular interactions. Calculated rate (k(d) and k(a)) and dissociation equilibrium (K(D)) constants for various ligand densities and analyte concentrations are extrapolated to the K(D) at the zero response level (K(D)(R0)). By applying this method to an LGR5-exo-Fc-RSPO1-FH interaction couple, the K(D)(R0) was determined as 3.1 nM.