An observational study of skier compliance with posted "slow" signs and ski patrollers.

OBJECTIVES: To examine the efficacy of "slow" signs and patroller presence at "slow" signs to reduce speeds of snowsports participants, compared to a condition where no sign or patroller are present, independent of other factors that may contribute to skier slowing (such as prior knowledge, trail convergence, etc.). DESIGN AND METHODS: Snowsports participant speeds were measured on "more difficult" trails using a radar gun at two ski areas with: (1) no-sign - the usual condition for the trail, and (2) slow-sign - a large "slow" sign was posted in the middle of the trail. At one ski area, a third condition was also tested: (3) slow+patroller - a ski patroller stood at the slow sign. Participant equipment type and estimated ability were also recorded. RESULTS: At one ski area, there was no significant difference in speed between conditions. At the second ski area, the differences in mean (SD) speeds were small but significant for the no-sign, slow-sign, and slow+patroller conditions: 10.9 (3.0), 10.3 (2.9), and 9.8 (2.6)m/s. Effects were driven by non-beginner skiers; on average, beginner skiers and all snowboarders were slower than non-beginner skiers and did not adjust their speed in response to the signage conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Reductions in speed for the slow-sign and slow+patroller conditions compared to the no-sign condition were small (0.5 and 1.1m/s) compared to the variation in chosen skier speed reported in other studies. The small differences in chosen speeds make it unlikely that slow sign and patroller presence alone would produce meaningful reductions in collision likelihood or severity of impacts.

Examining ski area padding for head and neck injury mitigation.

OBJECTIVES: The injury mitigation capabilities of foam, ski-area padding was examined for headfirst impacts. DESIGN AND METHODS: A custom-made pendulum impactor system was constructed using an instrumented, partial 50th-percentile-male Hybrid-III anthropomorphic testing device (ATD). For each test, the ATD was raised 1.0m, released, and swung into a 20-cm diameter wooden pole. Test trials were conducted with the wooden pole covered by ski area padding (five conditions of various foam types and thicknesses) or unpadded. Linear (linear acceleration and HIC15) and angular (angular velocity, angular acceleration, and BrIC) kinematics were examined and used to estimate the likelihood of severe brain injury. Cervical spine loads were compared to the injury assessment reference values for serious injury. Further tests were conducted to examine the changes produced by the addition of a snowsport helmet. RESULTS: 38 test trials were recorded with a mean (±sd) impact speed of 4.2 (±0.03) m/s. Head, resultant linear acceleration, HIC15, and associated injury likelihoods were tempered by ski area padding at the impact speed tested. Ski area padding did not reduce brain injury likelihood from rotational kinematics (p>0.05 for all comparisons) or reduce the cervical spine compression below injury assessment reference values. The addition of a helmet did not reduce significantly the likelihoods of brain or cervical spine injury. CONCLUSIONS: At the impact speed tested, ski area padding provided limited impact protection for the head (for linear kinematics) but did not protect against severe brain injuries due to rotational kinematics or serious cervical spine injuries.

Method to examine how geometry affects the release and retention of alpine touring boot-binding systems.

OBJECTIVES: Develop a method to examine the effects of component geometry and force-deflection on the release process of Tech/Pin alpine touring (AT) ski boots and bindings. DESIGN AND METHODS: For seven AT boots, we measured the critical geometric dimensions of the metal inserts at the toe region of the boots. Binding geometry (including the pins and rocker arms) and the force-angular deflection curves of typical AT bindings were measured. A kinematic model was derived to predict the contact force between the metal inserts of the AT boots and the pins of the AT bindings, dependent on angular displacement of the binding rocker arms. By combining the kinematic model, the force-angular deflection curves, and moment equilibrium, we determined the force and binding rotation angle needed to release the AT boot in a direction normal to the ski. RESULTS: The metal AT boot insert geometry and AT binding pin geometry and dimensions can affect significantly the contact states and kinematics of release. Two load-deflection curves of similar peak loads can result in significantly different maximal forces and angles to release the binding, even when the geometry and dimensions of the binding pins and boot inserts remain unchanged. CONCLUSIONS: The geometry and dimensions of the binding (pins and rocker arm) and the boot inserts define the kinematics of the binding release. The model can be used to test the effects of varying parameters on the release and retention characteristics of Tech/Pin boot-binding systems to optimize the release and retention characteristics.

Performance of Alpine Touring Boots When Used in Alpine Ski Bindings.

Alpine touring (AT) equipment is designed for ascending mountains and snow skiing down backcountry terrain. Skiers have been observed using AT boots in alpine (not made for Alpine Touring) ski bindings. We tested the effect on the retention-release characteristics of AT boots used in alpine bindings. Ten AT ski boots and 5 alpine ski boots were tested in 8 models of alpine ski bindings using an ASTM F504-05 (2012) apparatus. Thirty-one percent of the AT boots released appropriately when used in alpine ski bindings. One alpine binding released appropriately for all alpine and AT boots tested; 2 alpine ski bindings did not release appropriately for any AT boots. Altering the visual indicator settings on the bindings (that control the release torque of an alpine system) had little or no effect on the release torque when using AT boots in alpine ski bindings. Many combinations released appropriately in ski shop tests, but did not release appropriately in the more complex loading cases that simulated forward and backward falls; the simple tests performed by ski shops could produce a "false-negative" test result. These results indicate that using AT boots with alpine ski bindings could increase the likelihood of lower leg injuries.

The effect of hardhats on head and neck response to vertical impacts from large construction objects.

We evaluated the effectiveness of hardhats in attenuating head acceleration and neck force in vertical impacts from large construction objects. Two weight-matched objects (lead shot bag and concrete block) weighing 9.1 kg were dropped from three heights (0.91 m, 1.83 m and 2.74 m) onto the head of a 50th percentile male Hybrid III anthropomorphic test device (ATD). Two headgear conditions were tested: no head protection and an ANSI Type-I, Class-E hardhat. A third headgear condition (snow sport helmet) was tested at 1.83 m for comparison with the hardhat. Hardhats significantly reduced the resultant linear acceleration for the concrete block impacts by 70-95% when compared to the unprotected head condition. Upper neck compression was also significantly reduced by 26-60% with the use of a hardhat when compared to the unprotected head condition for the 0.91 and 1.83 m drop heights for both lead shot and concrete block drop objects. In this study we found that hardhats can be effective in reducing both head accelerations and compressive neck forces for large construction objects in vertical impacts.

Quantification of tibiofemoral shear and compressive loads using a MRI-based EMG-driven knee model.

The purpose of this study is to describe an MRI-based EMG-driven knee model to quantify tibiofemoral compressive and shear forces. Twelve healthy females participated. Subjects underwent 2 phases of data collection: (1) MRI assessment of the lower extremity to quantify muscle volumes and patella tendon orientation and (2) biomechanical evaluation of a drop-jump task. A subject-specific EMG-driven knee model that incorporated lower extremity kinematics, EMG, and muscle volumes and patella tendon orientation estimated from MRI was developed to quantify tibiofemoral shear and compressive forces. A resultant anterior tibial shear force generated from the ground reaction force (GRF) and muscle forces was observed during the first 30% of the stance phase of the drop-jump task. All of the muscle forces and GRF resulted in tibiofemoral compression, with the quadriceps force being the primary contributor. Acquiring subject-specific muscle volumes and patella tendon orientation for use in an EMG-driven knee model may be useful to quantify tibiofemoral forces in persons with altered patella position or muscle atrophy following knee injury or pathology.

Multiplane loading of the extensor mechanism alters the patellar ligament force/quadriceps force ratio.

Since the direction of the quadriceps force and location of the patellofemoral contact point likely differ between axial and multiplane loadings, the force and moment balance solutions for a multiplane loading condition may not yield the same patella ligament force/quadriceps force ratio (F(PL)/F(Q) ratio) when compared with an axial loading condition. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an axial loading condition and an anatomical, multiplane loading condition on the F(PL)/F(Q) ratio at various knee flexion angles. Ten cadaver knees were used in this investigation. Each was mounted on a custom jig that was fixed to an Instron frame. Quadriceps muscle loads were applied with same resultant force magnitudes under two force directions, as follows: (1) axial loading (central quadriceps tendon loading parallel to the femoral axis), and (2) an anatomically based, multiplane loading condition (individual vasti loaded, taking into consideration physiologic muscle fiber orientation). Patellar ligament tension was measured using a buckle transducer. The patellar ligament force/quadriceps force ratio (F(PL)/F(Q) ratio) was calculated for both loading conditions at 0 deg, 20 deg, 40 deg, and 60 deg of knee flexion. Across the range of knee motion evaluated, the F(PL)/F(Q) ratio for the axial loading condition was significantly greater than the F(PL)/F(Q) ratio for the multiplane loading condition. Our results suggest that loading orientation affects the transfer of forces from the quadriceps tendon to the patellar ligament.

High school and college baseball pitchers response and glove movements to line drives.

The timing of glove movements used by baseball pitchers to catch fast approaching balls (i.e., line drives) was examined in two tests to determine the responses and temporal characteristics of glove movements in high school and college baseball pitchers. Balls were projected toward the head of participants at 34.8 m.s-1 (78 mph) on average in an indoor test and at speeds approaching 58.1 m.s-1 (130 mph) in a field test. Pitchers caught over 80% and 15% of the projected balls in the indoor and field tests, respectively. Analyses of glove responses indicated that all pitchers could track the line drives and produce coordinated glove movements, which were initiated 160 ms (+/-47.8), on average, after the ball was launched. College pitchers made initial glove movements sooner than high school pitchers in the field test (p=0.012). In contrast, average glove velocity for pitchers increased from 1.33 (+/-0.61) to 3.45 (+/-0.86) m.s-1 across the tests, but did not differ between experience levels. Glove movement initiation and speed were unrelated, and pitchers utilized visual information throughout the ball's flight to catch balls that approached at speeds exceeding the estimated speeds in competitive situations.