Developmental Steps in Metaphorical Language Abilities: The Influence of Age, Gender, Cognitive Flexibility, Information Processing Speed, and Analogical Reasoning.

PURPOSE: Metaphor is a specific type of figurative language that is used in various important fields such as in the work with children in clinical or teaching contexts. The aim of the study was to investigate the developmental course, developmental steps, and possible cognitive predictors regarding metaphor processing in childhood and early adolescence. METHOD: One hundred sixty-four typically developing children (7-year-olds, 9-year-olds) and early adolescents (11-year-olds) were tested for metaphor identification, comprehension, comprehension quality, and preference by the Metaphoric Triads Task as well as for analogical reasoning, information processing speed, cognitive flexibility under time pressure, and cognitive flexibility without time pressure. RESULTS: Metaphor identification and comprehension consecutively increased with age. Eleven-year-olds showed significantly higher metaphor comprehension quality and preference scores than seven- and nine-year-olds, whilst these younger age groups did not differ. Age, cognitive flexibility under time pressure, information processing speed, analogical reasoning, and cognitive flexibility without time pressure significantly predicted metaphor comprehension. CONCLUSIONS: Metaphorical language ability shows an ongoing development and seemingly changes qualitatively at the beginning of early adolescence. These results can possibly be explained by a greater synaptic reorganization in early adolescents. Furthermore, cognitive flexibility under time pressure and information processing speed possibly facilitate the ability to adapt metaphor processing strategies in a flexible, quick, and appropriate way.

Influence of Sex on Suicidal Phenotypes in Affective Disorder Patients with Traumatic Childhood Experiences.

OBJECTIVES: In the current study, we aimed to investigate the impact of childhood trauma on suicidal behaviour phenotypes in a group of patients with diagnosed affective disorder (unipolar or bipolar affective disorder). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients with and without a history of childhood abuse, measured by Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), were assessed to explore risks for suicidal behaviour (including suicide attempt, self-harm and non-suicidal self-injury). The tested sample consisted of 258 patients (111 males and 147 females, in-patients and out-patients at the Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna and University Hospital Tulln, Lower Austria). Psychiatric diagnoses were derived from the SCAN (Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry) interview. In addition, patients were administered the Lifetime Parasuicidal Count (LPC), Suicidal Behaviour Questionnaire (SBQ-R), and Viennese Suicide Risk Assessment Scale (VISURIAS) questionnaires. RESULTS: In contrast to male suicide attempters, female suicide attempters showed both significantly higher total CTQ scores (p<0.001), and higher CTQ subscores (emotional, physical and sexual abuse, as well as emotional and physical neglect) in comparison to the non-suicidal control group. Besides, females with a history of self-harming behaviour (including suicidal intention) and Non-Suicidal-Self Injury (NSSI) had significantly higher CTQ total scores (p<0.001) than the control group. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest gender differences in suicidal behaviour after being exposed to childhood trauma.

[Attitudes towards anti-depressive therapy: acceptance vs. stigmatization]. / Einstellung zu antidepressiver Therapie: Akzeptanz vs. Stigmatisierung.

OBJECTIVE: The current study investigates the attitude towards antidepressant treatment among general public. METHODS: A total of 234 probands (139 women and 95 men) were asked to complete individually provided questionnaires examining socio-demographic data, psychoeducational levels, as well as personal beliefs concerning antidepressant treatment and levels of present stigmatisation. Three scales were used to quantify stigmatisation levels-"Revised Perceived Devaluation Discrimination Scale"/"Revised Internalized Stigma of Mental Illness Scale"/"Attitudes Toward Mental Health Treatment Scale", "Revised Perceived Devaluation Discrimination Scale". RESULTS: 65 people (27.8 %) reported to have had one or more episodes of depression during their lifetime; 169 people (72.2 %) indicated to have never had any episode of that type before. The words "sickness" and "anxiety" were the terms primarily associated with the word "depression". It was a common belief among interviewees that lonely individuals or those not receiving social support have a higher risk of becoming depressed. We further found that people experience higher levels of internalized stigma when talking about their antidepressant drug-therapy, than the level of perceived stigma would suggest. Opposed to those not indicating depression depressed people indicated that they considered the use of antidepressant medication helpful and a good option, if necessary. Stigma can still be found among those not indicating depression as well as among those with symptoms of depression. Based on the current study we conclude that work in the field of destigmatisation is of great importance.