Cellular energetics measured by phosphorous nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy are not correlated with chronic nutrient deficiency in multicellular tumor spheroids.

We have measured the 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of EMT6/Ro multicellular tumor spheroids over a wide range of sizes under constant nutrient conditions which matched those used for culturing the spheroids. The amount of nucleotide triphosphate per cell decreased with spheroid growth, roughly in proportion to the decrease in cell volume. There was no correlation between the intracellular pH, the nucleotide triphosphate:Pi ratio, or the phosphocreatine:Pi ratio and either the spheroid cellularity, the mean cell volume, the S-phase fraction, the clonogenic capacity, or the amount of central necrosis. The phosphoryethanolamine:phosphorylcholine ratio also increased with increasing spheroid size. There was a negative correlation between the phosphoryethanolamine:phosphorylcholine ratio and the S-phase cell fraction or the mean cell volume; this ratio was positively correlated with the extent of central necrosis. The membrane degradation components glycerophosphorylcholine and glycerophosphorylethanolamine showed no significant changes with increasing spheroid size. These results imply that spheroid necrotic areas induced by chronic nutrient deficiencies are "invisible" to 31P nuclear magnetic resonance and that the development of cellular quiescence in spheroids is not caused by a decrease in the steady-state level of high-energy phosphates or a reduced intracellular pH. Together, these data support a model in which cells maintain normal steady-state levels of high energy phosphates until they are very close to necrotic cell death. This implies that the deterioration of 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of tumors with increasing size is not caused by chronic nutrient deficiencies resulting from cells outgrowing the capillary supply, but rather is more related to transient nutrient deprivation phenomena.

A system for viably maintaining a stirred suspension of multicellular spheroids during NMR spectroscopy.

We have developed a system for the perfusion of a stirred suspension of multicellular spheroids during nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Measurement of the medium temperature, pH, oxygen tension, and glucose and lactate concentrations demonstrated that the macroenvironmental conditions around the spheroids during perfusion matched those in standard spinner culture flasks. Spheroids cultured in the NMR perfusion chamber for up to 48 h were virtually identical to spheroids cultured under standard conditions in terms of volume and cell number growth, the extent of central necrosis, cellular clonogenicity, and proliferative status. To avoid problems in interpreting the NMR spectra, we have used a medium containing 10% of the normal inorganic phosphate concentration; comparative growth and NMR studies showed that this medium had no effect on the results reported. 31P NMR spectroscopic analysis demonstrated that the mean pH, nucleotide triphosphate (NTP) to inorganic phosphate (Pi) ratio, the total amount of NTP, and the total energy charge were essentially constant over 8 h of analysis. Stopping the stirring of the spheroid culture during analysis resulted in depletion of the nucleotide phosphate pool in 30 min, with an accumulation of Pi and a shift to a more acid intracellular pH. This effect could be reversed if stirring was resumed within 30 min. Stopping the perfusion while maintaining stirring resulted in a deterioration of the 31P spectra until no high energy phosphates remained at 120 min and the pH fell to approximately 6. This effect was also partially reversible after 30 min of reperfusion, with recovery to a normal 31P spectrum requiring 10 h. The combination of the spheroid model system with 31P NMR spectroscopic analysis will provide a powerful tool for investigating basic questions about the regulation of tumor cell energy metabolism and viability.

A simple electronic volume cell sorter for clonogenicity assays.

A single-parameter electronic volume flow cell sorter that can be easily and inexpensively constructed using existing technology is described. The instrument is designed for ease and flexibility of operation, including such features as a large open area for recovering sorted cells into a variety of dishes or vessels; a remote, electrically activated fluidics system; a mechanism for heating or cooling samples during sorting; a simple arrangement for monitoring and adjusting the sorting control parameters; and an interface to a standard IBM personal computer for data acquisition, analysis, and control of the sorting windows. Several researchers in our laboratory now routinely use this sorter for plating precise numbers of cells directly into culture dishes in an aseptic manner for clonogenicity assays. The instrument can sort cells at rates of up to approximately 2,000 per second with greater than 80% sorting efficiency and no cytotoxicity. An advantage of this system is that the sorting windows can be set to exclude acellular debris and include either the entire cell volume distribution or a subset thereof. Applications of the instrument are detailed, including 1) precise cell plating for low-dose survival studies, 2) separation of cells into age compartments, and 3) rapid inoculation of single cells into multiwell dishes for cloning studies. Advantages of this technology for cell survival studies are detailed, along with some limitations to its applicability.

Regrowth kinetics of cells from different regions of multicellular spheroids of four cell lines.

A basic understanding of the recruitment of quiescent tumor cells into the cell cycle would be an important contribution to tumor biology and therapy. As a first step in pursuing this goal, we have investigated the regrowth kinetics of cells from different regions in multicellular spheroids of rodent and human origin. Cells were isolated from four different depths within the spheroids using a selective dissociation technique. The outer cells were proliferating and resumed growth after replating with a 0-8-hour lag period, similar to cells from exponentially growing monolayers. With increasing depth of origin, the lag periods prior to regrowth increased to 2-3 times the monolayer doubling time; cells from plateau-phase monolayers showed a lag period of 1-1.5 times the doubling period. After resuming growth, all cells of a given cell line grew with the same doubling time and achieved the same confluency level. The inner spheroid cells and cells from plateau-phase monolayers had reduced clonogenic efficiencies. The inner cells were initially 1.5-3 times smaller than the outer cells, but began to increase in volume within 4 hours of replating. The fractions of S-phase cells were greatly decreased with increasing depth of origin in the spheroids; there were long delays prior to S-phase recovery after plating, to a maximum of 1-1.5 times the normal doubling time. These results suggest that those quiescent cells from spheroids and monolayers which are able to reenter the cell cycle are predominantly in the G1-phase. However, quiescent cells from the innermost spheroid region require approximately twice as long to enter normal cell cycle traverse as cells from plateau-phase monolayers. The selective dissociation method can isolate very pure populations of proliferating and quiescent cells in a rapid and nonperturbing manner; this system will be valuable in further characterizing quiescent cells from spheroids.

Automated selective dissociation of cells from different regions of multicellular spheroids.

In this report we describe a new apparatus which has been developed for the automated selective dissociation of multicellular spheroids into fractions of viable cells from different locations in the spheroid. This device is based on the exposure of spheroids to a 0.25% solution of trypsin under carefully controlled conditions, such that the cells are released from the outer spheroid surface in successive layers. Study of the spheroid size, number of cells per spheroid, and sections through the spheroid with increasing exposure to trypsin demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique. The technique has been successfully used on spheroids from five different cell lines over a wide range of spheroid diameters. We also present data detailing the effect of varying the dissociation temperature, the mixing speed, the trypsin concentration, and the number of spheroids being dissociated. The new apparatus has several advantages over previous selective dissociation methods and other techniques for isolating cells from different regions in spheroids, including: a) precise control over dissociation conditions, improving reproducibility; b) short time to recover cell fractions; c) ability to isolate large numbers of cells from many different spheroid locations; d) use of common, inexpensive laboratory equipment; and e) easy adaptability to new cell lines or various spheroid sizes. Applications of this method are demonstrated, including the measurement of nutrient consumption rates, regrowth kinetics, and radiation survivals of cells from different spheroid regions.

Partial purification of a protein growth inhibitor from multicellular spheroids.

We report the partial purification of growth inhibitors extracted from human and mouse multicellular tumor spheroids with extensive necrosis. Sephadex G-100 column chromatography of spheroid extracts separated inhibitory fractions which eluted just after the void volume of the column. Identical chromatography of monolayer cell extracts showed no inhibitory activity. High-performance liquid chromatography of spheroid extracts separated single active peaks at apparent molecular weights of 80-89 kD. These extracts were extremely heat labile, and activity was destroyed by moderate trypsin treatment. The isolation of similar growth inhibitors from spheroids of two cell lines suggests that inhibition is important in tumor cell growth control in a three-dimensional situation.

Radiobiology of ultrasoft X rays. I. Cultured hamster cells (V79).

Ultrasoft X rays (approximately less than keV) provide a useful probe for the study of the physical parameters associated with the induction of biological lesions because the spatial scale of their energy depositions is of nanometer dimensions, comparable to that of critical structures within the cell. We report on cell-killing experiments using cultured hamster cells (V79) exposed to carbon K (0.28 keV), aluminum K (1.5 keV), copper K (8.0 keV), and 250 kVp X rays, under oxic and hypoxic conditions, and as a function of cell-cycle phase. Our principal results are: RBE increases with decreasing X-ray energy; OER decreases with decreasing X-ray energy; and cell-cycle response is similar for all X-ray energies. Our RBE results confirm earlier observations using ultrasoft X rays on mammalian cells. The shapes of fitted curves through the data for each energy are statistically indistinguishable from one another, implying that the enhanced effectiveness is purely dose modifying. The results reported herein generally support the view that single-track effects of radiation are predominantly due to very local energy depositions on the nanometer scale, which are principally responsible for observed radiobiological effects.