Acitretin reverses early functional network degradation in a mouse model of familial Alzheimer's disease.

Aberrant activity of local functional networks underlies memory and cognition deficits in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Hyperactivity was observed in microcircuits of mice AD-models showing plaques, and also recently in early stage AD mutants prior to amyloid deposition. However, early functional effects of AD on cortical microcircuits remain unresolved. Using two-photon calcium imaging, we found altered temporal distributions (burstiness) in the spontaneous activity of layer II/III visual cortex neurons, in a mouse model of familial Alzheimer's disease (5xFAD), before plaque formation. Graph theory (GT) measures revealed a distinct network topology of 5xFAD microcircuits, as compared to healthy controls, suggesting degradation of parameters related to network robustness. After treatment with acitretin, we observed a re-balancing of those network measures in 5xFAD mice; particularly in the mean degree distribution, related to network development and resilience, and post-treatment values resembled those of age-matched controls. Further, behavioral deficits, and the increase of excitatory synapse numbers in layer II/III were reversed after treatment. GT is widely applied for whole-brain network analysis in human neuroimaging, we here demonstrate the translational value of GT as a multi-level tool, to probe networks at different levels in order to assess treatments, explore mechanisms, and contribute to early diagnosis.

Transcriptional repression of the ectodomain sheddase ADAM10 by TBX2 and potential implication for Alzheimer's disease.

BACKGROUND: The ADAM10-mediated cleavage of transmembrane proteins regulates cellular processes such as proliferation or migration. Substrate cleavage by ADAM10 has also been implicated in pathological situations such as cancer or Morbus Alzheimer. Therefore, identifying endogenous molecules, which modulate the amount and consequently the activity of ADAM10, might contribute to a deeper understanding of the enzyme's role in both, physiology and pathology. METHOD: To elucidate the underlying cellular mechanism of the TBX2-mediated repression of ADAM10 gene expression, we performed overexpression, RNAi-mediated knockdown and pharmacological inhibition studies in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Expression analysis was conducted by e.g. real-time RT-PCR or western blot techniques. To identify the binding region of TBX2 within the ADAM10 promoter, we used luciferase reporter assay on deletion constructs and EMSA/WEMSA experiments. In addition, we analyzed a TBX2 loss-of-function Drosophila model regarding the expression of ADAM10 orthologs by qPCR. Furthermore, we quantified the mRNA level of TBX2 in post-mortem brain tissue of AD patients. RESULTS: Here, we report TBX2 as a transcriptional repressor of ADAM10 gene expression: both, the DNA-binding domain and the repression domain of TBX2 were necessary to effect transcriptional repression of ADAM10 in neuronal SH-SY5Y cells. This regulatory mechanism required HDAC1 as a co-factor of TBX2. Transcriptional repression was mediated by two functional TBX2 binding sites within the core promoter sequence (- 315 to - 286 bp). Analysis of a TBX2 loss-of-function Drosophila model revealed that kuzbanian and kuzbanian-like, orthologs of ADAM10, were derepressed compared to wild type. Vice versa, analysis of cortical brain samples of AD-patients, which showed reduced ADAM10 mRNA levels, revealed a 2.5-fold elevation of TBX2, while TBX3 and TBX21 levels were not affected. CONCLUSION: Our results characterize TBX2 as a repressor of ADAM10 gene expression and suggest that this regulatory interaction is conserved across tissues and species.

Altered Gut Microbiome Composition and Tryptic Activity of the 5xFAD Alzheimer's Mouse Model.

The regulation of physiological gut functions such as peristalsis or secretion of digestive enzymes by the central nervous system via the Nervus vagus is well known. Recent investigations highlight that pathological conditions of neurological or psychiatric disorders might directly interfere with the autonomous neuronal network of the gut - the enteric nervous system, or even derive from there. By using a murine Alzheimer's disease model, we investigated a potential influence of disease-associated changes on gastrointestinal properties. 5xFAD mice at three different ages were compared to wild type littermates in regard to metabolic parameters and enzymes of the gut by fluorimetric enzyme assay and western blotting. Overexpression of human amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP) within the gut was assessed by qPCR and IHC; fecal microbiome analysis was conducted by 16SrRNA quantitation of selected phyla and species. While general composition of fecal samples, locomotion, and food consumption of male 5xFAD animals were not changed, we observed a reduced body weight occurring at early pathological stages. Human AßPP was not only expressed within the brain of these mice but also in gut tissue. Analysis of fecal proteins revealed a reduced trypsin amount in the 5xFAD model mice as compared to the wild type. In addition, we observed changes in fecal microbiota composition along with age. We therefore suggest that the presence of the mutated transgenes (AßPP and PS1), which are per se the basis for the genetic form of Alzheimer's disease in humans, directly interferes with gut function as shown here for the disease model mice.

Increase of α-Secretase ADAM10 in Platelets Along Cognitively Healthy Aging.

ADAM10 is one of the key players in ectodomain-shedding of the amyloid-ß protein precursor (AßPP). Previous research with postmortem tissue has shown reduced expression and activity of ADAM10 within the central nervous system (CNS) of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Determination of cerebral ADAM10 in living humans is hampered by its transmembrane property; only the physiological AßPP cleavage product generated by ADAM10, sAßPPα, can be assessed in cerebrospinal fluid. Establishment of surrogate markers in easily accessible material therefore is crucial. It has been demonstrated that ADAM10 is expressed in platelets and that platelet amount is decreased in AD patients. Just recently it has been shown that platelet ADAM10 and cognitive performance of AD patients positively correlate. In contrast to AD patients, to our knowledge almost no information has been published regarding ADAM10 expression during normal aging. We investigated ADAM10 amount and activity in platelets of cognitively healthy individuals from three different age groups ranging from 22-85 years. Interestingly, we observed an age-dependent increase in ADAM10 levels and activity in platelets.

Identification of Phlogacantholide C as a Novel ADAM10 Enhancer from Traditional Chinese Medicinal Plants.

Background: Alzheimer's disease is one of the most prevalent dementias in the elderly population with increasing numbers of patients. One pivotal hallmark of this disorder is the deposition of protein aggregates stemming from neurotoxic amyloid-beta peptides. Synthesis of those peptides has been efficiently prevented in AD model mice by activation of an enzyme called alpha-secretase. Therefore, drugs with the capability to increase the expression of this enzyme, named ADAM10, have been suggested as a valuable therapeutic medication. Methods: We investigated 69 substances from a drug library derived from traditional Chinese medicine by luciferase reporter assay in human neuronal cells for their potential to selectively induce alpha-secretase expression. Western blot analysis was used to confirm results on the protein level. Results: Ten of the 69 investigated compounds led to induction of ADAM10 transcriptional activity while BACE-1 (beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1) and APP (amyloid precursor protein) expression were not induced. Two of them-Norkurarinol and Phlogacantholide C-showed substantial elevation of ADAM10 protein levels and Phlogacantholide C also increased secretion of the ADAM10-derived cleavage product APPs-alpha. Conclusion: Phlogacantholide C represents a novel ADAM10 gene expression enhancer from traditional Chinese medicinal herbs that may lay the groundwork for evolving potential novel therapeutics in Alzheimer's disease.

Extract of Caragana sinica as a potential therapeutic option for increasing alpha-secretase gene expression.

BACKGROUND: Alzheimer's disease represents one of the main neurological disorders in the aging population. Treatment options so far are only of symptomatic nature and efforts in developing disease modifying drugs by targeting amyloid beta peptide-generating enzymes remain fruitless in the majority of human studies. During the last years, an alternative approach emerged to target the physiological alpha-secretase ADAM10, which is not only able to prevent formation of toxic amyloid beta peptides but also provides a neuroprotective fragment of the amyloid precursor protein - sAPPalpha. PURPOSE: To identify novel alpha-secretase enhancers from a library of 313 extracts of medicinal plants indigenous to Korea, a screening approach was used and hits were further evaluated for their therapeutic value. METHODS: The extract library was screened for selective enhancers of ADAM10 gene expression using a luciferase-based promoter reporter gene assay in the human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Candidate extracts were then tested in wild type mice for acute behavioral effects using an open field paradigm. Brain and liver tissue from treated mice was biochemically analyzed for ADAM10 gene expression in vivo. An in vitro blood-brain barrier model and an in vitro ATPase assay were used to unravel transport properties of bioactive compounds from extract candidates. Finally, fractionation of the most promising extract was performed to identify biologically active components. RESULTS: The extract of Caragana sinica (Buc'hoz) Rehder was identified as the best candidate from our screening approach. We were able to demonstrate that the extract is acutely applicable in mice without obvious side effects and induces ADAM10 gene expression in peripheral tissue. A hindered passage across the blood-brain barrier was detected explaining lack of cerebral induction of ADAM10 gene expression in treated mice. By fractionating C. sinica extract we identified alpha-viniferin as one of the biologically active components. CONCLUSION: The extract of C. sinica and alpha-viniferin as one of its bioactive constituents might serve as novel therapeutic options for treating Alzheimer's disease by increasing ADAM10 gene expression. The identification of alpha-viniferin represents a promising starting point to achieve blood-brain barrier penetrance in the future.

Unfolded protein response signaling by transcription factor XBP-1 regulates ADAM10 and is affected in Alzheimer's disease.

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), disturbed homeostasis of the proteases competing for amyloid precursor protein processing has been reported: a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10 (ADAM10), the physiological α-secretase, is decreased in favor of the amyloid-ß-generating enzyme BACE-1. To identify transcription factors that modulate the expression of either protease, we performed a screening approach: 48 transcription factors significantly interfered with ADAM10/BACE-1-promoter activity. One selective inducer of ADAM10 gene expression is the X-box binding protein-1 (XBP-1). This protein regulates the unfolded protein-response pathway. We demonstrate that particularly the spliced XBP-1 variant dose dependently regulates ADAM10 expression, which can be synergistically enhanced by 100 nM insulin. Analysis of 2 different transgenic mouse models (APP/PS1 and 5xFAD) revealed that at early time points in pathology XBP-1 metabolism is induced. This is accompanied by a 2-fold augmented ADAM10 amount as compared with nontransgenic littermates (P=0.011). Along with aging of the mice, the system is counterregulated, and XBP-1 together with ADAM10 expression level decreased to ∼50% as compared with control animals. Analyses of expression levels in human AD brains showed that ADAM10 mRNA correlated with active XBP-1 (r=0.3120), but expression did not reach levels of healthy age-matched controls, suggesting deregulation of XBP-1 signaling. Our results demonstrate that XBP-1 is a driver of ADAM10 gene expression and that disturbance of this pathway might contribute to development or progression of AD.

Acitretin, an enhancer of alpha-secretase expression, crosses the blood-brain barrier and is not eliminated by P-glycoprotein.

BACKGROUND: ADAM10 (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase 10) has been demonstrated to act as the main physiological α-secretase. Enzymatic activity of the α-secretase on the one hand prevents the formation of toxic Aß peptides and on the other hand promotes the secretion of a neurotrophic and neuroprotective amyloid precursor protein fragment (APPs-α) by cleaving the amyloid precursor protein within its Aß sequence. Enhancement of ADAM10's gene expression may therefore present a valuable therapeutic approach for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), where Aß peptides are severely involved in the pathogenesis. OBJECTIVE: In cell culture and in a transgenic mouse model of AD, retinoids led to increased ADAM10 expression and activity. We therefore endeavor to develop a clinical application of synthetic retinoids such as acitretin in AD. METHODS: The effect of synthetic retinoids on ADAM10 gene expression was analyzed by reporter gene assays in human neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y. Penetrance of acitretin into the murine brain was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) double-knockout mice with a deficiency in both isoforms, mdr1a and 1b, were used to analyze a possible role of P-gp-dependent efflux on acitretin distribution. RESULTS: Acitretin and tamibarotene are both potent activators of ADAM10 promoter activity. Acitretin crosses the murine blood-brain barrier and its level in the mouse brain is not reduced by P-gp. CONCLUSION: Synthetic retinoids and especially acitretin seem to be ideal candidates to establish an ADAM10-based AD treatment, and therefore have already entered first clinical trials.