Immediate and delayed neuroendocrine responses to social exclusion in males and females.

Social exclusion is a complex phenomenon, with wide-ranging immediate and delayed effects on well-being, hormone levels, brain activation and motivational behavior. Building upon previous work, the current fMRI study investigated affective, endocrine and neural responses to social exclusion in a more naturalistic Cyberball task in 40 males and 40 females. As expected, social exclusion elicited well-documented affective and neural responses, i.e., increased anger and distress, as well as increased exclusion-related activation of the anterior insula, the posterior-medial frontal cortex and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cortisol and testosterone decreased over the course of the experiment, whereas progesterone showed no changes. Hormone levels were not correlated with subjective affect, but they were related to exclusion-induced neural responses. Exclusion-related activation in frontal areas was associated with decreases in cortisol and increases in testosterone until recovery. Given that results were largely independent of sex, the current findings have important implications regarding between-sex vs. within-sex variations and the conceptualization of state vs. trait neuroendocrine functions in social neuroscience.

Psychopharmacological modulation of event-related potentials suggests that first-hand pain and empathy for pain rely on similar opioidergic processes.

Accumulating evidence suggests that empathy for pain recruits similar neural processes as the first-hand experience of pain. The pain-related P2, an event-related potential component, has been suggested as a reliable indicator of neural processes associated with first-hand pain. Recent evidence indicates that placebo analgesia modulates this component for both first-hand pain and empathy for pain. Moreover, a psychopharmacological study showed that administration of an opioid antagonist blocked the effects of placebo analgesia on self-report of both first-hand pain and empathy for pain. Together, these findings suggest that the opioid system plays a similar role during first-hand pain and empathy for pain. However, such a conclusion requires evidence showing that neural activity during both experiences is similarly affected by psychopharmacological blockage of opioid receptors. Here, we measured pain-related P2 amplitudes and self-report in a group of participants who first underwent a placebo analgesia induction procedure. Then, they received an opioid receptor antagonist known to block the previously induced analgesic effects. Self-report showed that blocking opioid receptors after the induction of placebo analgesia increased both first-hand pain and empathy for pain, replicating previous findings. Importantly, P2 amplitudes were also increased during both experiences. Thus, the present findings extend models proposing that empathy for pain is partially grounded in first-hand pain by suggesting that this also applies to the underlying opioidergic neurochemical processes.

The impact of social exclusion vs. inclusion on subjective and hormonal reactions in females and males.

BACKGROUND: The experience of social exclusion represents an extremely aversive and threatening situation in daily life. The present study examined the impact of social exclusion compared to inclusion on steroid hormone concentrations as well as on subjective affect ratings. METHODS: Eighty subjects (40 females) participated in two independent behavioral experiments. They engaged in a computerized ball tossing game in which they ostensibly played with two other players who deliberately excluded or included them, respectively. Hormone samples as well as mood ratings were taken before and after the game. RESULTS: Social exclusion led to a decrease in positive mood ratings and increased anger ratings. In contrast, social inclusion did not affect positive mood ratings, but decreased sadness ratings. Both conditions did not affect cortisol levels. Testosterone significantly decreased after being excluded in both genders, and increased after inclusion, but only in males. Interestingly, progesterone showed an increase after both conditions only in females. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that social exclusion does not trigger a classical stress response but gender-specific changes in sex hormone levels. The testosterone decrease after being excluded in both genders, as well as the increase after inclusion in males can be interpreted within the framework of the biosocial status hypothesis. The progesterone increase might reflect a generalized affiliative response during social interaction in females.