Genipin protects d-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatic injury through suppression of the necroptosis-mediated inflammasome signaling.

Acute liver failure (ALF) is a life-threatening syndrome resulting from massive inflammation and hepatocyte death. Necroptosis, a programmed cell death controlled by receptor-interacting protein kinase (RIP) 1 and RIP3, has been shown to play an important role in regulating inflammation via crosstalk between other intracellular signaling. The inflammasome is a major intracellular multiprotein that induces inflammatory responses by mediating immune cell infiltration, thus potentiating injury. Genipin, a major active compound of the gardenia fruit, exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic properties. This study investigated the hepatoprotective mechanisms of genipin on d-galactosamine (GalN) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced ALF, particularly focusing on interaction between necroptosis and inflammasome. Mice were given an intraperitoneal injection of genipin (25, 50, and 100mg/kg) or necrostatin-1 (Nec-1, a necroptosis inhibitor; 1.8mg/kg) 1h prior to GalN (800mg/kg)/LPS (40µg/kg) injection and were killed 3h after GalN/LPS injection. Genipin improved the survival rate and attenuated increases in serum aminotransferase activities and inflammatory cytokines after GalN/LPS injection. Genipin reduced GalN/LPS-induced increases in RIP3, phosphorylated RIP1 and RIP3 protein expression, and RIP1/RIP3 necrosome complex, similar to the effects of Nec-1. GalN/LPS significantly increased serum levels of high-mobility group box 1 and interleukin (IL)-33, which were attenuated by genipin and Nec-1. Moreover, similar to Nec-1, genipin attenuated GalN/LPS-induced increases in the protein expression levels of NLRP3, ASC, and caspase-1, inflammasome components, and levels of liver and serum IL-1ß. Taken together, our findings suggest that genipin ameliorates GalN/LPS-induced hepatocellular damage by suppressing necroptosis-mediated inflammasome signaling.

2-Methoxyestradiol protects against ischemia/reperfusion injury in alcoholic fatty liver by enhancing sirtuin 1-mediated autophagy.

Alcoholic fatty liver (AFL) is susceptible to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury, responding with inflammation and extensive hepatocellular damage. Autophagy maintains cellular homeostasis and regulates inflammation and lipid metabolism. 2-Methoxyestradiol (2-ME2), an endogenous metabolite of estradiol, exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This study examined the cytoprotective mechanisms of 2-ME2 on hepatic I/R in AFL, focusing on autophagy signaling. C57BL/6 mice were fed an ethanol diet (ED) to induce AFL, or a control diet (CD) for 6weeks, and then subjected to 60min of ischemia and 5h of reperfusion. 2-ME2 (15mg/kg, i.p.) was administered 12h before ischemia and 10min before reperfusion, and sirtinol (sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) inhibitor, 10mg/kg, i.p.) was administered 30min before reperfusion. After reperfusion, ED animals showed higher serum aminotransferase activities and proinflammatory cytokine levels, and more severe histological changes compared with CD animals. These alterations were attenuated by 2-ME2. In the ED I/R group, autophagy and mitophagy were significantly impaired, as indicated by decreased hepatic levels of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 II and parkin protein expression, and increased p62 protein expression, which were attenuated by 2-ME2. The hepatic levels of Atg12-5 complex, Atg3, Atg7, lysosomal-associated membrane protein 2 and Rab7 protein expression significantly decreased in ED I/R animals, which were attenuated by 2-ME2. In the ED I/R group, the level of SIRT1 protein expression and its catalytic activity significantly decreased, which were attenuated by 2-ME2. Sirtinol reversed the stimulatory effect of 2-ME2 on autophagy. Our findings suggest that 2-ME2 ameliorates I/R-induced hepatocellular damage in AFL through activating SIRT1-mediated autophagy signaling.