Adaptation versus plastic responses to temperature, light, and nitrate availability in cultured snow algal strains.

Snow algal blooms are widespread, dominating low temperature, high light, and oligotrophic melting snowpacks. Here, we assessed the photophysiological and cellular stoichiometric responses of snow algal genera Chloromonas spp. and Microglena spp. in their vegetative life stage isolated from the Arctic and Antarctic to gradients in temperature (5 - 15°C), nitrate availability (1 - 10 µmol L-1), and light (50 and 500 µmol photons m-2 s-1). When grown under gradients in temperature, measured snow algal strains displayed Fv/Fm values increased by ∼115% and electron transport rates decreased by ∼50% at 5°C compared to 10 and 15°C, demonstrating how low temperatures can mimic high light impacts to photophysiology. When using carrying capacity as opposed to growth rate as a metric for determining the temperature optima, these snow algal strains can be defined as psychrophilic, with carrying capacities ∼90% higher at 5°C than warmer temperatures. All strains approached Redfield C:N stoichiometry when cultured under nutrient replete conditions regardless of temperature (5.7 ± 0.4 across all strains), whereas significant increases in C:N were apparent when strains were cultured under nitrate concentrations that reflected in situ conditions (17.8 ± 5.9). Intra-specific responses in photophysiology were apparent under high light with Chloromonas spp. more capable of acclimating to higher light intensities. These findings suggest that in situ conditions are not optimal for the studied snow algal strains, but they are able to dynamically adjust both their photochemistry and stoichiometry to acclimate to these conditions.

Restoration impacts on rates of denitrification and greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical coastal wetlands.

Forested coastal wetlands are globally important systems sequestering carbon and intercepting nitrogen pollution from nutrient-rich river systems. Coastal wetlands that have suffered extensive disturbance are the target of comprehensive restoration efforts. Accurate assessment of restoration success requires detailed mechanistic understanding of wetland soil biogeochemical functioning across restoration chrono-sequences, which remains poorly understood for these sparsely investigated systems. This study investigated denitrification and greenhouse gas fluxes in mangrove and Melaleuca forest soils of Vietnam, using the 15N-Gas flux method. Denitrification-derived N2O was significantly higher from Melaleuca than mangrove forest soils, despite higher potential rates of total denitrification in the mangrove forest soils (8.1 ng N g-1 h-1) than the Melaleuca soils (6.8 ng N g-1 h-1). Potential N2O and CO2 emissions were significantly higher from the Melaleuca soils than from the mangrove soils. Disturbance and subsequent recovery had no significant effect on N biogeochemistry except with respect to the denitrification product ratio in the mangrove sites, which was highest from the youngest mangrove site. Potential CO2 and CH4 fluxes were significantly affected by restoration in the mangrove soils. The lowest potential CO2 emissions were observed in the mid-age plantation and potential CH4 fluxes decreased in the older forests. The mangrove system, therefore, may remove excess N and improve water quality with low greenhouse gas emissions, whereas in Melaleucas, increased N2O and CO2 emissions also occur. These emissions are likely balanced by higher carbon stocks observed in the Melaleuca soils. These mechanistic insights highlight the importance of ecosystem restoration for pollution attenuation and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coastal wetlands. Restoration efforts should continue to focus on increasing wetland area and function, which will benefit local communities with improved water quality and potential for income generation under future carbon trading.

Microbial characterisation and Cold-Adapted Predicted Protein (CAPP) database construction from the active layer of Greenland's permafrost.

Permafrost represents a reservoir for the biodiscovery of cold-adapted proteins which are advantageous in industrial and medical settings. Comparisons between different thermo-adapted proteins can give important information for cold-adaptation bioengineering. We collected permafrost active layer samples from 34 points along a proglacial transect in southwest Greenland. We obtained a deep read coverage assembly (>164x) from nanopore and Illumina sequences for the purposes of i) analysing metagenomic and metatranscriptomic trends of the microbial community of this area, and ii) creating the Cold-Adapted Predicted Protein (CAPP) database. The community showed a similar taxonomic composition in all samples along the transect, with a solid permafrost-shaped community, rather than microbial trends typical of proglacial systems. We retrieved 69 high- and medium-quality metagenome-assembled clusters, 213 complete biosynthetic gene clusters and more than three million predicted proteins. The latter constitute the CAPP database that can provide cold-adapted protein sequence information for protein- and taxon-focused amino acid sequence modifications for the future bioengineering of cold-adapted enzymes. As an example, we focused on the enzyme polyphenol oxidase, and demonstrated how sequence variation information could inform its protein engineering.

Chronic atmospheric reactive N deposition has breached the N sink capacity of a northern ombrotrophic peatbog increasing the gaseous and fluvial N losses.

Peatlands play an important role in modulating the climate, mainly through sequestration of carbon dioxide into peat carbon, which depends on the availability of reactive nitrogen (Nr) to mosses. Atmospheric Nr deposition in the UK has been above the critical load for functional and structural changes to peatland mosses, thus threatening to accelerate their succession by vascular plants and increasing the possibility of Nr export to downstream ecosystems. The N balance of peatlands has received comparatively little attention, mainly due to the difficulty in measuring gaseous N losses as well as the Nr inputs due to biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). In this study we have estimated the mean annual N balance of an ombrotrophic bog (Migneint, North Wales) by measuring in situ N2 + N2O gaseous fluxes and also BNF in peat and mosses. Fluvial N export was monitored through a continuous record of DON flux, while atmospheric N deposition was modelled on a 5 × 5 km grid. The mean annual N mass balance was slightly positive (0.7 ± 4.1 kg N ha-1 y-1) and varied interannually indicating the fragile status of this bog ecosystem that has reached N saturation and is prone to becoming a net N source. Gaseous N losses were a major N output term accounting for 70% of the N inputs, mainly in the form of the inert N2 gas, thus providing partial mitigation to the adverse effects of chronic Nr enrichment. BNF was suppressed by 69%, compared to rates in pristine bogs, but was still active, contributing ~2% of the N inputs. The long-term peat N storage rate (8.4 ± 0.8 kg N ha-1 y-1) cannot be met by the measured N mass balance, showing that the bog catchment is losing more N than it can store due its saturated status.

Chronic Atmospheric Reactive Nitrogen Deposition Suppresses Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Peatlands.

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) represents the natural pathway by which mosses meet their demands for bioavailable/reactive nitrogen (Nr) in peatlands. However, following intensification of nitrogen fertilizer and fossil fuel use, atmospheric Nr deposition has increased exposing peatlands to Nr loading often above the ecological threshold. As BNF is energy intensive, therefore, it is unclear whether BNF shuts down when Nr availability is no longer a rarity. We studied the response of BNF under a gradient of Nr deposition extending over decades in three peatlands in the U.K., and at a background deposition peatland in Sweden. Experimental nitrogen fertilization plots in the Swedish site were also evaluated for BNF activity. In situ BNF activity of peatlands receiving Nr deposition of 6, 17, and 27 kg N ha-1 yr-1 was not shut down but rather suppressed by 54, 69, and 74%, respectively, compared to the rates under background Nr deposition of ∼2 kg N ha-1 yr-1. These findings were corroborated by similar BNF suppression at the fertilization plots in Sweden. Therefore, contribution of BNF in peatlands exposed to chronic Nr deposition needs accounting when modeling peatland's nitrogen pools, given that nitrogen availability exerts a key control on the carbon capture of peatlands, globally.

Author Correction: Nitrogen-rich organic soils under warm well-drained conditions are global nitrous oxide emission hotspots.

The original version of this Article contained an error in the first sentence of the Acknowledgements section, which incorrectly referred to the Estonian Research Council grant identifier as "PUTJD618". The correct version replaces the grant identifier with "PUTJD619". This has been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the Article.

Nitrogen-rich organic soils under warm well-drained conditions are global nitrous oxide emission hotspots.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a powerful greenhouse gas and the main driver of stratospheric ozone depletion. Since soils are the largest source of N2O, predicting soil response to changes in climate or land use is central to understanding and managing N2O. Here we find that N2O flux can be predicted by models incorporating soil nitrate concentration (NO3-), water content and temperature using a global field survey of N2O emissions and potential driving factors across a wide range of organic soils. N2O emissions increase with NO3- and follow a bell-shaped distribution with water content. Combining the two functions explains 72% of N2O emission from all organic soils. Above 5 mg NO3--N kg-1, either draining wet soils or irrigating well-drained soils increases N2O emission by orders of magnitude. As soil temperature together with NO3- explains 69% of N2O emission, tropical wetlands should be a priority for N2O management.

Relative Magnitude and Controls of in Situ N2 and N2O Fluxes due to Denitrification in Natural and Seminatural Terrestrial Ecosystems Using (15)N Tracers.

Denitrification is the most uncertain component of the nitrogen (N) cycle, hampering our ability to assess its contribution to reactive N (Nr) removal. This uncertainty emanates from the difficulty in measuring in situ soil N2 production and from the high spatiotemporal variability of the process itself. In situ denitrification was measured monthly between April 2013 and October 2014 in natural (organic and forest) and seminatural ecosystems (semi-improved and improved grasslands) in two UK catchments. Using the (15)N-gas flux method with low additions of (15)NO3(-) tracer, a minimum detectable flux rate of 4 µg N m(-2) h(-1) and 0.2 ng N m(-2) h(-1) for N2 and N2O, respectively, was achieved. Denitrification rates were lower in organic and forest (8 and 10 kg N ha(-1) y(-1), respectively) than in semi-improved and improved grassland soils (13 and 25 kg N ha(-1) y(-1), respectively). The ratio of N2O/N2 + N2O was low and ranged from <1% to 7% across the sites. Variation in denitrification was driven by differences in soil respiration, nitrate, C:N ratio, bulk density, moisture, and pH across the sites. Overall, the contribution of denitrification to Nr removal in natural ecosystems was ~50% of the annual atmospheric Nr deposition, making these ecosystems vulnerable to chronic N saturation.

Denitrification potential of organic, forest and grassland soils in the Ribble-Wyre and Conwy River catchments, UK.

Soil denitrification activity can be highly variable due to the effects of varied land use management practices within catchments on the biogeochemical regulators of denitrification. To test this assumption in the context of mixed-use rural catchments, it was hypothesised that the relative magnitude of denitrification activity may be regulated, among others, by a gradient of soil nitrate (low to high) between organic (peat bog, heathland, and acid grassland), forest (coniferous and deciduous), and grassland (improved and semi-improved) rural land use types. The denitrification potential (DP) of organic, forest and grassland soils, in two UK catchments was measured in the laboratory. Land use type significantly (p < 0.05) influenced the DP, which ranged between 0.02 and 63.3 mg N m(-2) h(-1). The averaged DP of organic and forest soils (1.08 mg N m(-2) h(-1)) was 3 and 10 times less than the DP of semi-improved (4.06 mg N m(-2) h(-1)) and improved (12.09 mg N m(-2) h(-1)) grassland soils, respectively; and among others, nitrate correlated positively (p < 0.05) with the DP. The results indicated that the difference in soil nitrate concentration between organic (naturally low in nitrate availability) and grassland soils (nitrate enriched due to land management) partially regulated the extent of DP. In the absence of N fertilisation, except for the atmospheric N deposition, the relatively low net nitrification potential (as a source of nitrate for denitrifiers) of organic and forest soils alone seem to have resulted in lower denitrifier's activity compared to grassland soils. Moreover, the interactions between soil organic carbon, pH, bulk density, water filled pore space, and texture, as these are influenced by the relative degree of land management, exerted additional controls on the DP. The results suggest that land management can have significant effects on denitrification, and thus needs to be considered when modelling and/or predicting the response of denitrification to land use change.