Integrating attachment and linguistic perspectives on the coherence of narratives regarding close relationships: A qualitative illustration.

In this multidisciplinary study, we offer an integrative view on the coherence of narratives regarding close relationships. We show how coherence, as conceptualized by attachment researchers, is manifested in discursive syntactic structure, as conceptualized by linguists. To illustrate this correspondence, we use narratives of six mothers about their adolescent child and their relationship. Narratives were elicited with the widely used Five Minute Speech Sample (FMSS) procedure and were coded according to the FMSS-coherence manual, tapping their clarity, consistency, and multidimensionality. In addition, the syntactic constructions employed by mothers were analyzed. FMSS were segmented into Clause Packages (CPs). Within CPs, overt syntactic markers, such as 'because,' as well as unmarked thematic and pragmatic relations, such as new vs. given information, were categorized as reflecting different levels of integration between clauses. As we demonstrate, mothers whose narratives were rated as more coherent employed more integrated CPs. We conclude by discussing the multi-layered nature of coherence. We consider how a multidisciplinary approach to coherence can enrich the understanding of personal narratives and open a new direction for research of close relationships as well as inform functional analyses of the linguistic expression of coherence.

Maternal and paternal insightfulness and reaction to the diagnosis in families of preschoolers with Autism spectrum disorder: associations with observed parental sensitivity and inter-parent interaction.

Sensitivity among parents of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is based on parental insightfulness and on resolution regarding the child's diagnosis. This has been supported in studies of mothers, and we examined whether the same is true regarding fathers. Also, we asked whether parents' Insightfulness and Resolution tap general mentalization and therefore also be expressed in parent-parent interactions. Eighty preschooler boys with ASD and both of their parents participated. As expected, fathers who were more insightful and mothers who were more resolved were more sensitive. Contrary to expectations, no associations were found between fathers' resolution and mothers' insightfulness and their sensitivity. Associations were found between parental insightfulness and resolution and positive parent-parent interaction. The findings are the first to demonstrate the insightfulness-sensitivity link among fathers of children with ASD. Also, they suggest that both insightfulness and resolution involve general mentalization that is evident both in parent-child and parent-parent interactions.

Teacher-child one-on-one playtime: Teachers' non-intrusiveness predicts developmental outcomes of children with developmental delay.

The contribution of dyadic teacher-child interactions to the development of children with special needs has received little research attention. This study examined whether teachers' non-intrusiveness during one-on-one playtime predicts developmental outcomes of children with developmental delay. Participants were 47 teachers and one of their kindergarteners diagnosed with developmental delay. At Time 1, teachers' non-intrusiveness during teacher-child play interactions was assessed. At Time 1 and 12 months later, kindergarten therapists reported on children's adaptive behavior, school performance, and internalizing and externalizing problems. Teachers' non-intrusiveness predicted children's increased adaptive behavior, improved school performance, and decreased externalizing problems across the year. Findings highlight the importance of supporting teachers' non-intrusiveness and including one-on-one teacher-child play as an integral part of special education kindergartens' curriculum.

Parental Expressed Emotion, Parenting Stress, and Behavioral Problems of Young Children with 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome and Idiopathic Autism Spectrum Disorder.

This study examined the associations of parents' expressed emotion (EE) and parenting stress, with behavioral problems of children with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, idiopathic autism (iASD) and typically developing (TD) children. Parents of children aged 3-8 years completed the five-minute-speech-sample (FMSS), parental stress index and children behavioral checklist. Parents' FMSS-EE-criticism was higher among parents of children with 22q11DS and iASD compared to parents of TD children. FMSS-EE scores predicted children's behavioral problems, above and beyond parenting stress. The associations between FMSS-EE, parenting stress and children's behavioral problems were consistent across 22q11DS, iASD and TD children. These findings highlight the need for targeting parents' EE and parenting stress as integral elements in the screening and prevention of behavioral problems of young children with 22q11DS and iASD.

Emotional availability in mothers and their children with spinal muscular atrophy type 1 who require augmentative and alternative communication: a mixed-methods pilot study.

Emotional availability in parent-child interactions fosters children's socioemotional development. Little is known about the emotional availability of parents and children with profound motor disabilities and complex communication needs or the contributions of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) to emotional availability. To begin addressing these gaps, this pilot study focused on three mothers and their children with spinal muscular atrophy Type 1 who could not speak and required AAC. The study used a mixed-methods design. Mother-child interactions were rated using the Emotional Availability Scales. Semi-structured in-depth interviews with the mothers were qualitatively analyzed. Emotional availability in mother-child dyads was adequate. In the interviews, mothers addressed significant challenges but described mainly typical parent-child relationships and adaptive child and mother coping attributable to the use of AAC. Results suggest that emotional availability is possible and can be facilitated by AAC, even with children with profound motor disabilities and limited ability to communicate needs and desires. The findings highlight the importance of targeting children's socioemotional needs and parent-child emotional availability in AAC interventions with families of children with profound motor disabilities.

Nursing aides' mentalization, expressed emotion, and observed interaction with residents with dementia: A quasi-experimental study.

This study examined the associations between nursing aides' mentalization, expressed emotion, and observed sensitivity towards their residents with dementia. The study also explored whether nursing aides' mentalization and expressed emotion are relational constructs that vary with residents' characteristics and behavior. To assess mentalization and expressed emotion (i.e., criticism and positive comments), twenty nursing aides provided "Three Minutes Speech Samples" regarding two residents, one nominated by the head nurse as "difficult", and one nominated as "easy". Next, nursing aides were videotaped interacting with each of the two residents to assess their sensitivity and residents' engagement. Findings indicated that nursing aides' mentalization and positive comments were associated with their sensitivity. Nursing aides' mentalization and positive comments did not vary with residents' "easy" versus "difficult" nominations, but they were associated with residents' engagement. Results suggest training and supervision programs should involve efforts to improve nursing aides' mentalization skills and their ability to perceive their residents positively.

Parents' resolution of their child's diagnosis: A scoping review.

This scoping review focused on parents' resolution of their reactions to receiving a diagnosis for their child, based on Marvin and Pianta's model and Reaction to Diagnosis Interview (RDI). We aimed to map the populations examined, the prevalence of parents' narrated resolution, and what is known about its outcomes and determinants. A structured search identified 47 peer-reviewed papers published between 1992-2021. All employed the RDI and most had a cross-sectional design. Studies focused on a wide range of children's health and mental health diagnoses. Days to years after receiving the diagnosis, RDI narratives of 18.43% to 72.49% of the parents (44% on average) indicated lack of resolution. Studies reported associations between unresolved narratives and children's insecure attachment, higher parenting stress, and poorer parental health. However, findings on the associations of narrated resolution with parents' representations of their child, sensitivity, and psychological symptoms were equivocal, and findings on factors that may shape narrated resolution were limited. To advance the understanding of parents' narrated resolution and its effects, we recommend researchers employ prospective and longitudinal designs, evaluate narrated resolution as a continuous phenomenon, focus on outcomes derived from attachment theory, and systematically sample families from heterogenous cultures.

Spontaneous movements, motor milestones, and temperament of preterm-born infants: Associations with mother-infant attunement.

Preterm-born infants and their mothers are at higher risk of showing less attuned interactions. We sought to identify characteristics of preterm-born infants associated with the attunement of mother-infant interactions at the corrected ages of 3-4 months, looking specifically at motor behaviors. We focused on infants' spontaneous movements, achievement of motor milestones, and temperament, which at this young age is often manifested via movement. Sixty preterm-born infants (Mdngestation age in weeks  = 33, 57.38% male, corrected age Mdn = 14 weeks, interquartile range = 13-16) and their mothers participated. Independent observers rated mother-infant attunement, infants' spontaneous movements, and infants' achievement of motor milestones. Mothers reported infant temperament. We found infants' smooth and fluent movement character and continual fidgety movements were associated with better attunement in terms of higher maternal sensitivity and non-intrusiveness and higher infant responsiveness and involvement. Unexpectedly, infants' achievement of motor milestones was not significantly associated with mother-infant attunement, and maternal reports of infants' higher soothability were associated with lower maternal sensitivity. The study illustrates the value of including the assessment of infants' spontaneous movements, designed for early detection of neurological deficiencies, in research and in clinical practice with parents and preterm-born infants.

Emotional availability in dyads of nursing aide - resident with dementia: Old tool, new perspective.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the emotional availability of nursing aide-resident with dementia dyads in a long-term care-facility. Emotional availability refers to the nursing aide's sensitivity toward the resident, structuring their interactions in a non-intrusive and non-hostile manner and the resident's responsiveness to and involvement of the nursing aide. The study evaluated the reciprocity in the emotional availability of nursing aides and the residents and examined whether emotional availability varies with the level of difficulty of taking care of the residents and with the context of the interaction. METHOD: The study was conducted in three wards in one long-term care-facility. Twenty nursing aides and 40 residents took part in the study. Each nursing aide was videotaped during feeding, structured and unstructured interactions, with two residents, one that was nominated by the head nurse as difficult to take care of and one that was nominated as easy to take care of. The interactions were coded using the emotional availability scales. RESULTS: Linear mixed-effect model analyses indicated that higher emotional availability of nursing aides was related to higher emotional availability of the residents. Nursing aides' emotional availability did not vary between "difficult" and "easy" residents or across the three interaction contexts. "Difficult" residents involved their nursing aides less than "easy" residents. DISCUSSION: The study documented the reciprocal nature of the interaction between nursing aides and residents with dementia. It suggests that nursing aides have an important role in promoting residents' responsiveness and involvement.

How Should Mothers React When They First Learn About Their Child's Involvement With Deviant Peers? The Adolescents' Perspective.

Little is known regarding how parents' responses when first learning about their adolescents' deviant peer affiliation affect adolescents' further affiliation and disclosure of risk behavior to parents. Studies on the effects of parents' warnings to control adolescents' material or personal information resources are particularly scarce. To address these gaps, 237 Jewish Israeli adolescents who self-identified as interacting with deviant peers (40.50% female, mean age = 14.55 years, age range = 13-16 years) reported their mothers' actual or anticipated responses when learning for the first time about their deviant peer affiliation. The results indicated that mothers' warnings to control adolescents' material and information resources were experienced as less frustrating and more satisfying of adolescents' psychological needs than was mothers' enactment of resource control. Mothers' responses of autonomy support and warnings to use resource control were positively associated with cessation of deviant peer affiliation. Mothers' enactment of resource control was associated with adolescents' less disclosure and consultation with their mothers regarding risk behaviors, whereas the reverse was true for the general practice of autonomy support. Possible need-related mechanisms underlying the associations of warnings with the cessation of deviant peer affiliation are discussed. The results highlight the importance of parents' autonomy-supportive response to the onset of deviant peer affiliation as a specific strategy that has benefits beyond the positive effects of the general practice of autonomy support. These findings suggest that it is important to promote an autonomy-supportive response to the onset of deviant peer affiliation also among parents who are generally autonomy-supportive.

Mothers' Narratives on their Immigration Experiences: Associations with Maternal Relatedness and Adolescent Adjustment.

We examined the hypothesis that lower maternal relatedness mediates the associations of immigrant mothers' acculturative stress and lack of benefit finding in immigration with poorer adjustment of their adolescents in terms of more externalizing problems and lower school achievements and self-worth. Participants were 93 adolescents (47.31% girls, Mage  = 16.04) and their mothers (Mage  = 45.83) from middle-class families. Mothers immigrated to Israel from the Former Soviet Union or Western countries (Myears-in-Israel  = 19.75). We used a multimethod multi-informant approach that included a novel narrative procedure for assessing acculturative stress and benefit finding. Structural Equation Modeling supported the hypothesis, suggesting that research on and practice with adolescents in immigrant families should consider the meaning parents derive from their immigration experiences.

A mental health course for developmental allied healthcare professionals: An exploration of potential effectiveness.

We examined the effectiveness of a mental health course for developmental allied healthcare professionals (DAHPs) that focused on emotional and relational processes inherent to treatment. We hypothesized that (a) following the course, DAHPs would report increased awareness and sense of competence in dealing with these processes; (b) an increased sense of competence would be associated with decreased burnout; (c) following the course, DAHPs would increase their reading and participation in seminars about emotional processes in therapy; and (d) DAHPs would report the course had positive effects on their work and that they use a more relationship-based treatment approach. Participants were 153 Israeli DAHPs. They reported their attitudes and sense of competence in coping with emotional and relational processes in treatment in three time points: before, upon completion, and at follow-up. At follow-up, participants also reported level of burnout and the extent they made changes in their work. They provided examples of these changes, which were qualitatively analyzed. Study hypotheses were supported. Results suggest participating in a relatively brief mental health course is associated with positive changes in DAHPs' attitudes, sense of competence, and professional approach toward a relationship-based treatment.

Examinamos la efectividad de un curso de salud mental para un grupo de profesionales de Protección de Salud en Bienestar del Desarrollo (DAHPs), el cual se enfoca en los procesos emocional y de relación inherentes al tratamiento. Nuestra hipótesis es que (1) después del curso DAHPs reportarían incremento del conocimiento consciente y sentido de competencia al tratar con estos procesos; (2) un incremento en el sentido de competencia estaría asociado con una baja en el cansancio laboral; (3) después del curso, DAHPs aumentarían sus lecturas y participación en seminarios acerca de los procesos emocionales en la terapia; (4) DAHPs reportarían que el curso tuvo efectos positivos en sus trabajos y que ellos usarían un acercamiento al tratamiento más orientado hacia la relación. Los participantes fueron 153 DAHPs de Israel. Ellos reportaron acerca de sus actitudes y sentido de competencia para arreglárselas con los procesos emocionales y de relación en el tratamiento en tres momentos del curso: antes, al completarlo y durante el seguimiento. Al momento del seguimiento, los participantes también reportaron el nivel de cansancio laboral y hasta qué punto ellos hicieron cambios en su trabajo. Aportaron ejemplos de estos cambios, los cuales fueron cualitativamente analizados. Se encontró apoyo para las hipótesis del estudio. Los resultados sugieren que participar en un curso de salud mental relativamente breve se asocia con cambios positivos en las actitudes de DAHPs, su sentido de competencia y el acercamiento profesional hacia un tratamiento con base en la relación.

Nous avons examiné l'efficacité d'un cours sur la santé mentale pour les professionnels des soins de santé liés au développement (ici abrégé DAHP selon l'anglais Developmental Allied Healthcare professionals) qui mettaient l'accent sur les processus émotionnels et relationnels inhérents au traitement. Nous avons pris pour hypothèse que (1) après le cours les DAHP feraient état d'une conscience et d'un sens de compétence plus importants pour ce qui est de faire face à ces processus; (2) un sens de compétence plus élevé serait lié à un burnout moins important; (3) après le cours les DAHP liraient plus et participeraient à plus de séminaires sur les processus émotionnels dans la thérapie; (4) les DAHP rapporteraient que le cours avait eu des effets positifs sur leur travail et qu'ils utilisent une approche du traitement plus basée sur la relation. Les participants et participantes ont consisté en 153 DAHP israéliens. Ils et elles ont fait état de leurs attitudes et de leur sens de compétence en faisant face aux processus émotionnels et relationnels dans le traitement à trois points dans le temps: avant, juste après le cours, et après, au suivi. Au suivi les participants et participantes ont aussi fait état de leur niveau de burnout et les manières selon lesquelles ils ou elles avaient effectué des changements dans leur travail. Ils ou elles ont présenté des exemples de ces changements, qui ont été analysés de manière qualitative. Les hypothèses de l'étude ont été appuyées. Les résultats suggèrent que le fait de participer à un cours relativement bref sur la santé mentale est lié à des changements positifs dans les attitudes des DAHP, à un sens de compétence et à une approche professionnelle du traitement basé sur la relation.

The reaction to diagnosis questionnaire: a preliminary validation of a new self-report measure to assess parents' resolution of their child's diagnosis.

Parents' resolution of their child's diagnosis is associated with parental sensitivity and secure child attachment. The Reaction to Diagnosis Interview (RDI) is the accepted measure for assessing resolution, but its administration and coding are time and labor intensive. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Reaction to Diagnosis Questionnaire (RDQ), a new self-report measure that assesses resolution. 75 mothers of children diagnosed with Cerebral Palsy or Developmental Delay completed the RDI and the RDQ and reported on family characteristics. The RDQ showed good internal consistency. Mothers who were classified as resolved using the RDI had higher RDQ scores compared with mothers who were classified as unresolved. The networks of associations of the RDI and the RDQ with family characteristics were similar, although formal equivalence testing could not be performed. The RDQ may be a promising time- and cost-effective tool. Nevertheless, more research is needed to further establish its validity.

Assessing the Coherence of Parents' Short Narratives Regarding their Child Using the Five-Minute Speech Sample Procedure.

Valid and efficient measures for assessing the quality of parent-child relationships are needed to facilitate research and evidence-based practice with parents. This paper focuses on such a method, namely Five-Minute Speech Sample-Coherence (FMSS-Coherence). In this method, a parent is asked to speak for five uninterrupted minutes about her/his child and their relationship. The resulted narrative is coded for coherence, namely the extent to which the parent provides in the narrative a clear, consistent, multidimensional and well-supported portrayal of the child. FMSS-Coherence is based on attachment research that shows that the coherence of parents' narratives is indicative of the quality of the parent-child relationship and child adjustment. It overcomes the limitations of attachment narrative measures which are typically labor intensive. FMSS-Coherence is less nuanced than extant attachment narrative measures. Yet, studies of families from different cultural backgrounds, across different child ages and in the context of typically developing children as well as children with special needs suggest that coherence can be reliably evaluated using the FMSS procedure. Furthermore, parents' FMSS-Coherence is associated with parenting quality and children's socio-emotional adjustment. Thus, it holds promise for researchers and practitioners who seek a relatively time- and cost-effective method for assessing the coherence of parents' narratives regarding their child.

Associations among mothers' representations of their relationship with their toddlers, maternal parenting stress, and toddlers' internalizing and externalizing behaviors.

This study examined the array of associations among the emotional valence and the coherence of mothers' representations of their relationship with their toddlers, mothers' reported parenting stress, and toddlers' internalizing and externalizing behaviors. To evaluate maternal representations, 55 mothers were interviewed using the Five Minute Speech Sample procedure (FMSS; Magaña et al., 1986), which was coded for criticism and positive comments (Magana-Amato, 1993), as well as coherence (Sher-Censor & Yates, 2015). Mothers also completed the Parenting Stress Index - Short Form (PSI; Abidin, 1997) to evaluate their parenting stress and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL/1.5-5; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2000) to assess their toddlers' internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Results indicated that parenting stress was associated with maternal criticism and fewer positive comments in the FMSS, but not with the coherence of mothers' FMSS. Parenting stress, criticism, and lower coherence in the FMSS were associated with maternal reports of externalizing behaviors. Only parenting stress and lower coherence in the FMSS were related to mothers' reports of internalizing behaviors of the child. Thus, the emotional valence and the coherence of mothers' representations of their relationship with their child and parenting stress may each constitute a distinct aspect of parenting and contribute to the understanding of individual differences in toddlers' internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Implications for research and practice with families of toddlers are discussed.

Mother-Adolescent Dialogues and Adolescents' Behavior Problems in a Multicultural Sample: The Mediating Role of Representations.

This study examined whether the link between higher maternal sensitive guidance of emotional dialogues and fewer adolescent behavior problems is mediated by adolescents' more coherent representations of their mothers. The study also explored the consistency of this model across families from varied cultural backgrounds. Participants were 143 Jewish-Israeli mother-adolescent dyads from three cultural groups: immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, immigrants from Western countries, and native-born Israelis. Maternal sensitive guidance was observed during mother-adolescent dialogues about emotional experiences. Adolescents' representations were assessed via their narratives regarding their mother and their relationship. Examiners reported adolescents' behavior problems. Results indicated that across cultural groups adolescents' more coherent representations partially mediated the association between higher maternal sensitive guidance and fewer adolescent behavior problems.

Coherence of Representations Regarding the Child, Resolution of the Child's Diagnosis and Emotional Availability: A Study of Arab-Israeli Mothers of Children with ASD.

This study examined the interplay of mothers' coherent representations of their child (i.e., multidimensional and balanced view); resolution of the child's ASD diagnosis (i.e., acceptance); and emotional availability to the child in the unique cultural context of Arab-Israeli families. Participants were 46 mothers and their 2-8 year old sons. Coherent representations and resolution of the diagnosis were assessed using narrative measures. Emotional availability (namely, sensitivity, structuring, and lack of intrusiveness and hostility) was observed during mother-child play interactions. Results suggested that coherent and resolved mothers were more emotionally available than incoherent and/or unresolved mothers. These findings highlight the importance of supporting mothers' ability to accept the child's diagnosis and see the unique characteristics of the child beyond his ASD symptoms.

Earliest memories in Israeli kibbutz upbringing: it is parental engagement that makes a difference.

Culture and parenting shape the ability to recall early childhood experiences. This research focused on the unique context of upbringing in the Israeli kibbutz and examined how cultural orientation and experiences of parental engagement in Kibbutz and non-Kibbutz settings shaped adults' earliest memories. Participants were 108 women (study 1) and 75 women and men (study 2) who were raised in traditional kibbutz upbringing or in a non-kibbutz family setting. In addition to reporting their earliest memory and age at earliest memory, participants estimated retrospectively the amount of daily time spent in interaction with parents, caregivers, and other children during the time of earliest memory. Overall, upbringing-related variations in cultural orientation were evident in the content of memories. A prediction of later age at earliest memory due to limited opportunities for parent-child interaction characteristic of traditional kibbutz upbringing was not supported. Rather, in both studies, age at earliest memory was linked to retrospective estimation of parental engagement, after controlling for childhood ecology. Study 2 revealed also a link of age at earliest memory to retrospective estimation of involvement with non-parental caregivers. These findings are congruent with the social-interaction model's claims about the importance of interaction with caregiving adults to autobiographical memory's development.

Preschoolers' self-regulation moderates relations between mothers' representations and children's adjustment to school.

Consistent with models of environmental sensitivity (Pluess, 2015), research suggests that the effects of parents' behaviors on child adjustment are stronger among children who struggle to regulate their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors compared with children with better self-regulation. This study extended prior research by assessing maternal representations of the child, which presumably underlie mothers' parenting behaviors, to evaluate the moderating influence of preschoolers' self-regulation on relations between mothers' representations and changes in children's negative and positive developmental adjustment outcomes from preschool to first grade. Participants were 187 mothers and their preschoolers. Mothers' representations were assessed via the coherence of their verbal narratives regarding their preschooler and teachers reported on preschoolers' self-regulation. In preschool and first grade, examiners rated children's externalizing behavior problems and ego-resilience, and teachers rated children's externalizing behavior problems and peer acceptance. Consistent with the environmental sensitivity framework, the coherence of mothers' narratives predicted changes in adjustment among children with self-regulation difficulties, but not among children with better self-regulation. Preschoolers with self-regulation difficulties whose mothers produced incoherent narratives showed increased externalizing behavior problems, decreased ego-resilience, and lower peer acceptance across the transition to school. In contrast, preschoolers with better self-regulation did not evidence such effects when their mothers produced incoherent narratives. The implications of these findings for understanding and supporting children's adjustment during the early school years are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

The Meaning of Emotional Overinvolvement in Early Development: Prospective Relations With Child Behavior Problems.

Emotional overinvolvement (EOI) in parents' Five Minute Speech Samples (FMSSs; Magaña-Amato, 1993) is thought to measure overconcern and enmeshment with one's child. Although related to maladaptive outcomes in studies of adult children, FMSS EOI evidences varied relations with behavior problems in studies with young children. These mixed findings may indicate that certain FMSS EOI criteria reflect inappropriate and excessive involvement with adult children, but do not indicate maladaptive processes when parenting younger children. Thus, this study evaluated relations of each FMSS EOI criterion with changes in child behavior problems from preschool to first grade in a community sample of 223 child­mother dyads (47.98% female; Wave 1 M(age) 49.08 months; 56.50% Hispanic/Latina). Maternal FMSS EOI ratings were obtained at Wave 1, and independent examiners rated child externalizing and internalizing behavior problems at Wave 1 and again 2 years later. Path analyses indicated that both the self-sacrifice/overprotection (SSOP) and statements of attitude (SOAs) FMSS EOI criteria predicted increased externalizing problems. In contrast, excessive detail and exaggerated praise were not related to child externalizing behavior problems, and Emotional Display was not evident in this sample. None of the FMSS EOI criteria evidenced significant relations with internalizing behavior problems. Multigroup comparisons indicated that the effect of SOAs on externalizing behavior problems was significant for boys but not for girls, and there were no significant group differences by race/ethnicity. These findings point to the salience of SSOP and SOAs for understanding the developmental significance of EOI in early development.