A Cell-Adapted Live-Attenuated Vaccine Candidate Protects Pigs against the Homologous Strain VNUA-ASFV-05L1, a Representative Strain of the Contemporary Pandemic African Swine Fever Virus.

African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal and highly contagious transboundary animal disease with the potential for rapid international spread. Currently, there is no ASF vaccine commercially available. All infected animals must be isolated and culled immediately upon the confirmation of the presence of the virus. Studies leading to the rational development of protective ASF vaccines are urgently needed. Here, we generated a safe and efficacious live-attenuated vaccine (LAV) VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 by serially passaging a field isolate (VNUA-ASFV-05L1, genotype II) in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs, 65 passages) and an immortalized porcine alveolar macrophage cell line (3D4/21, 55 passages). VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 can efficiently replicate in both PAMs and 3D4/21 cells. It provides 100% protection, even with the low dose of 102 HAD50, to the vaccinated pigs against the challenge of contemporary pandemic ASFV field isolate. Pigs vaccinated with this LAV in a dose range of 102 to 105 HAD50 remained clinically healthy during both the 28-day observation period of immunization and the 28-day observation period of challenge. VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 was eliminated from blood by 28 days post-inoculation (DPI), and from feces or oral fluids by 17 DPI. Although the vaccine strain in serum remained a safe and attenuated phenotype after five passages in swine, a reversion-to-virulence study using blood or tissue homogenates at peak viremia will be conducted in the future. ASFV-specific IgG antibodies and significant cellular immunity were detected in vaccinated pigs before the ASFV challenge. These results indicate that the VNUA-ASFV-LAVL2 strain is a safe and efficacious LAV against the genotype II ASFV strain responsible for current ASF outbreaks in Asia.

An easy method to generate recombinant pseudorabies virus expressing the capsid protein of Porcine circovirus type 2d.

Introduction: Homologous recombination is an effective way to generate recombinant viruses for vaccine research such as pseudorabies virus (PRV) and adenovirus. Its efficiency can be affected by the integrity of viral genome and the linearization sites. Methods: In the study, we described a simple approach to isolate the viral DNA with high genomic integrity for large DNA viruses and a time-saving method to generate recombinant PRVs. Several cleavage sites in the PRV genome were investigated by using the EGFP as a reporter gene for identification of PRV recombination. Results: Our study showed that cleavage sites of XbaI and AvrII are ideal for PRV recombination which showed higher recombinant efficiency than others. The recombinant PRV-EGFP virus can be easily plaque purified in 1-2 weeks after the transfection. By using PRV-EGFP virus as the template and XbaI as the linearizing enzyme, we successfully constructed the PRV-PCV2d_ORF2 recombiant virus within a short period by simply transfecting the linearized PRV-EGFP genome and PCV2d_ORF2 donor vector into BHK-21 cells. This easy and efficient method for producing recombinant PRV might be adapted in other DNA viruses for the generation of recombinant viruses.

Development of Porcine Monoclonal Antibodies with In Vitro Neutralizing Activity against Classical Swine Fever Virus from C-Strain E2-Specific Single B Cells.

Neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) can be used before or after infection to prevent or treat viral diseases. However, there are few efficacious nAbs against classical swine fever virus (CSFV) that have been produced, especially the porcine-originated nAbs. In this study, we generated three porcine monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with in vitro neutralizing activity against CSFV, aiming to facilitate the development of passive antibody vaccines or antiviral drugs against CSFV that offer the advantages of stability and low immunogenicity. Pigs were immunized with the C-strain E2 (CE2) subunit vaccine, KNB-E2. At 42 days post vaccination (DPV), CE2-specific single B cells were isolated via fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS) baited by Alexa Fluor™ 647-labeled CE2 (positive), goat anti-porcine IgG (H + L)-FITC antibody (positive), PE mouse anti-pig CD3ε (negative) and PE mouse anti-pig CD8a (negative). The full coding region of IgG heavy (H) chains and light (L) chains was amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Overall, we obtained 3 IgG H chains, 9 kappa L chains and 36 lambda L chains, which include three paired chains (two H + κ and one H + λ). CE2-specific mAbs were successfully expressed in 293T cells with the three paired chains. The mAbs exhibit potent neutralizing activity against CSFVs. They can protect ST cells from infections in vitro with potent IC50 values from 14.43 µg/mL to 25.98 µg/mL for the CSFV C-strain, and 27.66 µg/mL to 42.61 µg/mL for the CSFV Alfort strain. This study is the first report to describe the amplification of whole-porcine IgG genes from single B cells of KNB-E2-vaccinated pig. The method is versatile, sensitive, and reliable. The generated natural porcine nAbs can be used to develop long-acting and low-immunogenicity passive antibody vaccine or anti-CSFV agents for CSF control and prevention.

2023 International African Swine Fever Workshop: Critical Issues That Need to Be Addressed for ASF Control.

The 2023 International African Swine Fever Workshop (IASFW) took place in Beijing, China, on 18-20 September 2023. It was jointly organized by the U.S.-China Center for Animal Health (USCCAH) at Kansas State University (KSU) and the Chinese Veterinary Drug Association (CVDA) and sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA-FAS), Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, and Zoetis Inc. The objective of this workshop was to provide a platform for ASF researchers around the world to unite and share their knowledge and expertise on ASF control and prevention. A total of 24 outstanding ASF research scientists and experts from 10 countries attended this meeting. The workshop included presentations on current ASF research, opportunities for scientific collaboration, and discussions of lessons and experiences learned from China/Asia, Africa, and Europe. This article summarizes the meeting highlights and presents some critical issues that need to be addressed for ASF control and prevention in the future.

Characterization of monoclonal antibodies that specifically differentiate field isolates from vaccine strains of classical swine fever virus.

Classical swine fever virus (CSFV) is a major animal pathogen threatening the global pork industry. To date, numerous anti-CSFV monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and their recognizing epitopes have been reported. However, few mAbs were systematically characterized for the capacity to differentiate field CSFV isolates from CSF vaccine strains, and the molecular basis associated with antigenic differences between vaccines and field isolates is still largely unknown. In the present study, recombinant CSFV structural glycoproteins E2 of both virulent and vaccine strains and Erns of vaccine strain were expressed using eukaryotic cells and murine mAbs generated against E2 and Erns. After serial screening and cloning of the hybridomas, the viral spectra of mAbs were respectively determined by indirect fluorescent antibody assay (IFA) using 108 CSFVs, followed by Western blot analysis using expressed glycoproteins of all CSFV sub-genotypes including vaccine strains. The antigenic structures recognized by these mAbs were characterized by epitope mapping using truncated, chimeric, and site-directed mutated E2 and Erns proteins. We have identified two vaccine-specific, one field isolate-specific, and two universal CSFV-specific mAbs and five novel conformational epitopes with critical amino acid (aa) motifs that are associated with these five mAbs: 213EPD215, 271RXGP274, and 37LXLNDG42 on E2 and 38CKGVP42, W81, and D100/V107 on Erns. Particularly, E213 of E2 is field isolate-specific, while N40 of E2 and D100/V107 of Erns are vaccine strain-specific. Results from our study further indicate that N40D of E2 mutation in field strains was likely produced under positive selection associated with long-term mass vaccination, leading to CSFV evasion of host immune response. Taking together, this study provides new insights into the antigenic structure of CSFV E2 and Erns and the differentiating mAbs will contribute to the development of a diagnostic strategy to differentiate C-strain vaccination from natural infection (DIVA) of CSFV in terms of elimination of CSF in China.

A Novel Competitive ELISA for Specifically Measuring and Differentiating Immune Responses to Classical Swine Fever C-Strain Vaccine in Pigs.

Classical swine fever can be controlled effectively by vaccination with C-strain vaccine. In this study, we developed a novel competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) based on a C-strain Erns specific monoclonal antibody (mAb 1504), aiming to serologically measure immune responses to C-strain vaccine in pigs, and finally to make the C-strain become a DIVA-compatible vaccine. The cELISA system was established based on the strategy that mAb 1504 will compete with the C-strain induced antibodies in the pig serum to bind the C-strain Erns protein. The cELISA was optimized and was further evaluated by testing different categories of pig sera. It can efficiently differentiate C-strain immunized from wild-type CSFV-infected pigs and lacks cross-reaction with other common swine viruses and viruses in genus Pestivirus such as Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). The C-strain antibody can be tested in pigs 7-14 days post vaccination with this cELISA. The sensitivity and specificity of the established cELISA were 100% (95% confidence interval: 95.60 to 100%) and 100% (95% confidence interval: 98.30 to 100%), respectively. This novel cELISA is a reliable tool for specifically measuring and differentiating immune responses to C-strain vaccine in pigs. By combining with the wild-type CSFV-specific infection tests, it can make the C-strain have DIVA capability.

Emulsion Adjuvants for Use in Veterinary Vaccines.

The use of emulsion as adjuvants is widely used in veterinary vaccines. Emulsion adjuvants are inexpensive, stable, and relatively easy to prepare into vaccine formulations. Here we describe the preparation of oil-in-water emulsion adjuvant that has been shown to enhance immune responses and protect against diseases in pigs. This emulsion adjuvant and its variations could potentially be used alone or in combination with other adjuvants in veterinary vaccine formulations.

Genome Sequence of a Virulent African Swine Fever Virus Isolated in 2020 from a Domestic Pig in Northern Vietnam.

This study reports the genome sequence of an isolated African swine fever (ASF) virus (VNUA-ASFV-05L1/HaNam) obtained at the fourth passage on pulmonary alveolar macrophages. The virus was isolated during a typical acute ASF outbreak in pigs in a northern province of Vietnam in 2020.

Recent Advances in the Diagnosis of Classical Swine Fever and Future Perspectives.

Classical swine fever (CSF) is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs, including wild boar. It is regarded as one of the major problems in the pig industry as it is still endemic in many regions of the world and has the potential to cause devastating epidemics, particularly in countries free of the disease. Rapid and reliable diagnosis is of utmost importance in the control of CSF. Since clinical presentations of CSF are highly variable and may be confused with other viral diseases in pigs, laboratory diagnosis is indispensable for an unambiguous diagnosis. On an international level, well-established diagnostic tests of CSF such as virus isolation, fluorescent antibody test (FAT), antigen capture antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), virus neutralization test (VNT), and antibody ELISA have been described in detail in the OIE Terrestrial Manual. However, improved CSF diagnostic methods or alternatives based on modern technologies have been developed in recent years. This review thus presents recent advances in the diagnosis of CSF and future perspectives.

Synergistic China-US Ecological Research is Essential for Global Emerging Infectious Disease Preparedness.

The risk of a zoonotic pandemic disease threatens hundreds of millions of people. Emerging infectious diseases also threaten livestock and wildlife populations around the world and can lead to devastating economic damages. China and the USA-due to their unparalleled resources, widespread engagement in activities driving emerging infectious diseases and national as well as geopolitical imperatives to contribute to global health security-play an essential role in our understanding of pandemic threats. Critical to efforts to mitigate risk is building upon existing investments in global capacity to develop training and research focused on the ecological factors driving infectious disease spillover from animals to humans. International cooperation, particularly between China and the USA, is essential to fully engage the resources and scientific strengths necessary to add this ecological emphasis to the pandemic preparedness strategy. Here, we review the world's current state of emerging infectious disease preparedness, the ecological and evolutionary knowledge needed to anticipate disease emergence, the roles that China and the USA currently play as sources and solutions to mitigating risk, and the next steps needed to better protect the global community from zoonotic disease.

Deletion of CD2-like gene from the genome of African swine fever virus strain Georgia does not attenuate virulence in swine.

The CD2-like African swine fever virus (ASFV) gene 8DR, (also known as EP402R) encodes for a structural transmembrane glycoprotein that has been shown to mediate hemadsorption and be involved in host immunomodulation as well as the induction of protective immune response. In addition, several natural ASFV isolates showing decreased virulence in swine has been shown to be non-hemadsorbing suggesting an association between altered or deleted forms of 8DR and virus attenuation. Here we demonstrate that deletion of 8DR gene from the genome of ASFV Georgia2010 isolate (ASFV-G-Δ8DR) does not significantly alter the virulence of the virus. ASFV-G-Δ8DR inoculated intramuscularly or intranasally (in a range of 102 to 104 TCID50) produced a clinical disease in domestic pigs indistinguishable from that induced by the same doses of the virulent parental ASFV Georgia2010 isolate. In addition, viremia values in ASFV-G-Δ8DR do not differ from those detected in animals infected with parental virus. Therefore, deletion of 8DR gene is not associated with a noticeable decrease in virulence of the ASFV Georgia isolate.

A neutralizing monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA for classical swine fever C-strain post-vaccination monitoring.

BACKGROUND: Virus neutralization test (VNT) is widely used for serological survey of classical swine fever (CSF) and efficacy evaluation of CSF vaccines. However, VNT is a time consuming procedure that requires cell culture and live virus manipulation. C-strain CSF vaccine is the most frequently used vaccine for CSF control and prevention. In this study, we presented a neutralizing monoclonal antibody (mAb) based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) with the emphasis on the replacement of VNT for C-strain post-vaccination monitoring. RESULTS: One monoclonal antibody (6B211) which has potent neutralizing activity against C-strain was generated. A novel cELISA was established and optimized based on the strategy that 6B211 can compete with C-strain induced neutralizing antibodies in pig serum to bind capture antigen C-strain E2. By testing C-strain VNT negative pig sera (n = 445) and C-strain VNT positive pig sera (n = 70), the 6B211 based cELISA showed 100% sensitivity (95% confidence interval: 94.87 to 100%) and 100% specificity (95% confidence interval: 100 to 100%). The C-strain antibody can be tested in pigs as early as 7 days post vaccination with the cELISA. By testing pig sera (n = 139) in parallel, the cELISA showed excellent agreement (Kappa = 0.957) with VNT. The inhibition rate of serum samples in the cELISA is highly correlated with their titers in VNT (r2 = 0.903, p < 0.001). In addition, intra- and inter-assays of the cELISA exhibited acceptable repeatability with low coefficient of variations (CVs). CONCLUSIONS: This novel cELISA demonstrated excellent agreement and high level correlation with VNT. It is a reliable tool for sero-monitoring of C-strain vaccination campaign because it is a rapid, simple, safe and cost effective assay that can be used to monitor vaccination-induced immune response at the population level.

Development of a multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay for simultaneous detection and differentiation of influenza A, B, C, and D viruses.

Influenza is a common and contagious respiratory disease caused by influenza A, B, C, and D viruses (IAV, IBV, ICV, and IDV). A multiplex real-time RT-PCR assay was developed for simultaneous detection of IAV, IBV, ICV, and IDV. The assay was designed to target unique sequences in the matrix gene of IBV and ICV, the RNA polymerase subunit PB1 of IDV, and combined with USDA and CDC IAV assays, both target the matrix gene. The host 18S rRNA gene was included as an internal control. In silico analyses indicated high strain coverages: 97.9% for IBV, 99.5% for ICV, and 100% for IDV. Transcribed RNA, viral isolates and clinical samples were used for validation. The assay specifically detected target viruses without cross-reactivity, nor detection of other common pathogens. The limit of detection was approximately 30 copies for each viral RNA template, which was equivalent to a threshold cycle value of ~37.

Plant-made E2 glycoprotein single-dose vaccine protects pigs against classical swine fever.

Classical Swine Fever Virus (CSFV) causes classical swine fever, a highly contagious hemorrhagic fever affecting both feral and domesticated pigs. Outbreaks of CSF in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America had significant adverse impacts on animal health, food security and the pig industry. The disease is generally contained by prevention of exposure through import restrictions (e.g. banning import of live pigs and pork products), localized vaccination programmes and culling of infected or at-risk animals, often at very high cost. Current CSFV-modified live virus vaccines are protective, but do not allow differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA), a critical aspect of disease surveillance programmes. Alternatively, first-generation subunit vaccines using the viral protein E2 allow for use of DIVA diagnostic tests, but are slow to induce a protective response, provide limited prevention of vertical transmission and may fail to block viral shedding. CSFV E2 subunit vaccines from a baculovirus/insect cell system have been developed for several vaccination campaigns in Europe and Asia. However, this expression system is considered expensive for a veterinary vaccine and is not ideal for wide-spread deployment. To address the issues of scalability, cost of production and immunogenicity, we have employed an Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression platform in Nicotiana benthamiana and formulated the purified antigen in novel oil-in-water emulsion adjuvants. We report the manufacturing of adjuvanted, plant-made CSFV E2 subunit vaccine. The vaccine provided complete protection in challenged pigs, even after single-dose vaccination, which was accompanied by strong virus neutralization antibody responses.

Phenotypic Characterization of Porcine IFNγ-Producing Lymphocytes in Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Vaccinated and Challenged Pigs.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) continues to be one of the most important swine diseases worldwide. Interferon-γ (IFNγ)-mediated type I cell-mediated immune response plays an important role in protection from, and clearance of, PRRS virus (PRRSV). Several lymphocyte subsets including T-helper, CTLs, Th/memory cells, and γδ T lymphocytes were previously reported to produce IFNγ during PRRSV infection. However, the proportion and phenotypic characterization of these IFNγ-secreting lymphocytes have not been explored. In this study, IFNγ producted by different lymphocyte subsets was assessed by multi-color flow cytometry after vaccination with PRRSV modified live vaccine (PRRSV-MLV) and challenge with homogeneous or heterogeneous PRRSV. The results showed that T-helper cells were the major IFNγ-secreting cell population after PRRSV-MLV vaccination and PRRSV challenge. Additionally, the proportion of IFNγ producing Th/memory cells and γδ T cells increased after PRRSV challenge. This difference was accounted for an enhanced ability to produce IFNγ in Th/memory cells and an enlarged quantity of γδ T cells. The results presented here could contribute to our understanding of the roles of IFNγ in protective immunity against PRRSV infection and may be useful for assessment of cell-mediated immunity in vaccine tests.

Toward the development of a one-dose classical swine fever subunit vaccine: antigen titration, immunity onset, and duration of immunity.

Highly contagious classical swine fever (CSF) remains a major trade and health problem in the pig industry, resulting in large economic losses worldwide. In CSF-endemic countries, attenuated CSF virus (CSFV) vaccines have been routinely used to control the disease. However, eradication of CSFV in a geographical area would require permanent reduction to zero presence of the virus. It is therefore of paramount importance to develop a safe, potent, and non-infectious CSF vaccine. We have previously reported on a cost-effective CSF E2 subunit vaccine, KNB-E2, which can protect against CSF symptoms in a single dose containing 75 µg of recombinant CSFV glycoprotein E2. In this study, we report on a series of animal studies undertaken to elucidate further the efficacy of KNB-E2. We found that pigs vaccinated with a single KNB-E2 dose containing 25 µg of recombinant CSFV glycoprotein E2 were protected from clinical symptoms of CSF. In addition, KNB-E2-mediated reduction of CSF symptoms was observed at two weeks post-vaccination and the vaccinated pigs continued to exhibit reduced CSF clinical signs when virus challenged at two months and four months post-vaccination. These results suggest that KNB-E2 effectively reduces CSF clinical signs, indicating the potential of this vaccine for safely minimizing CSF-related losses.

Food-Grade Saponin Extract as an Emulsifier and Immunostimulant in Emulsion-Based Subunit Vaccine for Pigs.

Subunit vaccines consisting of highly purified antigens require the presence of adjuvants to create effective and long-lasting protective immunity. Advances on adjuvant research include designing combination adjuvants which incorporate two or more adjuvants to enhance vaccine efficacy. Previously, an oil-in-water emulsion adjuvant (OW-14) composed of mineral oil and an inexpensive gum Arabic emulsifier has been reported demonstrating enhanced and robust immune responses when used as an adjuvant in swine subunit vaccines. This study presents a modified version of OW-14 prepared with food-grade Quillaja saponin extract (OWq). In new OWq emulsion, saponin extract served as an emulsifier for stabilization of emulsion droplets and as an immunoactive compound. The use of saponins allowed to reduce the required amount of emulsifier in the original OW-14. However, emulsion stabilized with saponins demonstrated extended physical stability even at elevated temperature (37°C). The two-dose vaccination with a classical swine fever virus (CSFV) glycoprotein E2-based vaccine formulated with OWq produced higher levels of E2-specific IgG and virus neutralizing antibodies in pigs in contrast with animals that received the vaccine adjuvanted with oil only. In addition, new OWq adjuvant was safe to use in the vaccination of pigs.

Adjuvants for Animal Vaccines.

Vaccines are essential tools for the prevention and control of infectious diseases in animals. One of the most important steps in vaccine development is the selection of a suitable adjuvant. The focus of this review is the adjuvants used in vaccines for animals. We will discuss current commercial adjuvants and experimental formulations with attention to mineral salts, emulsions, bacterial-derived components, saponins, and several other immunoactive compounds. In addition, we will also examine the mechanisms of action for different adjuvants, examples of adjuvant combinations in one vaccine formulation, and challenges in the research and development of veterinary vaccine adjuvants.